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ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY 




Go forth under the open sky, and list 
To Nature’s teachings, while from all around — 
Earth and her waters, and the depths of air. — 
Comes a still voice.— William Cullen Bryant. 


Fig. A. 

Yosemite Falls. 













CALIFORNIA STATE SERIES 


) 


ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY 

TARR AND McMURRY 


REVISED BY 

THE TEXT-BOOK COMMITTEE 
AND APPROVED BY 
THE STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION 



A Native Son. 

“ Blessings on thee, little man, * * 


»> 1 


SACRAMENTO 

W. W. Shannon, Superintendent of State Printing 




o\ 


Copyright, 1909 , 

By THE PEOPLE OF THE STATE OF CALIFORNIA. 

Copyright, 1900 , 1901 , 1902 , 1907 , 

By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. 


(go**. 

ci. A 24 5 5 62 

AUi 19 1909 


In the compilation of this work certain matter from the Advanced 
Geography by Ralph S. Tarr and Frank M. McMurry has been used. 
All such matter is protected by the copyright entries noted above! 

1—e—50,000—6-09 



PREFACE 


In the plan of this volume the authors have left the beaten track 
to such an extent that some words of explanation seem in place. 

General Geography.—Probably the most difficult part of the 
geography for Grammar School grades is that dealing with seasons, 
winds, rainfall, temperature, etc. It ordinarily occupies a con¬ 
siderable number of pages at the beginning of the larger book, and 
follows immediately upon Primary Geography. 

This arrangement requires pupils to spring from a meager study 
of simple, concrete facts to the highest abstractions in the entire 
subject; and, what makes the matter worse, these broad abstractions 
are usually only very briefly stated. 

The authors of this volume have followed a different plan. 
Only three chapters, at the beginning of the book, precede the in¬ 
tensive treatment of the United States. The first is a physiographic 
history of the continent, showing how its principal mountain ranges 
and valleys came into existence; how its coal beds were formed; 
what were the effects of the great Ice Age; and what have been the 
more recent changes in the coast line, with their results. Then comes 


a chapter on the Plants, Animals, and Peoples of North America; 
and following that is a treatment of Latitude and Longitude. 

Only so much is presented before taking up the United States, 
because that is all that seems really necessary. Whatever further 
facts have been needed for North America in regard to seasonal 
changes, winds, etc., have been plainly stated, when needed, just as 
other concrete facts have been. After our continent is finished 


and a fair number of concrete data, bearing on these matters, has 
been collected, these topics themselves are treated in much detail. 
By this arrangement, the study of these difficult subjects has been 
postponed one year, and they are then approached somewhat induc¬ 
tively. The authors regard this as one of the most important among 

their proposed changes in method. 

The general principles in regard to industries, distribution of 
inhabitants, mutual relation of city and country, and dependence of 


VI 


PREFACE 


various sections upon one another, form another subject which, con¬ 
trary to custom, is treated in the middle and latter parts of the 
volume. One reason for this is that these broad truths approach 
abstractions in their nature, and are, consequently, too difficult to 
be earlier appreciated by children. They are, moreover, to a large 
extent, a summary of what has preceded, and, therefore, naturally 
come last. A more inductive approach is, therefore, again highly 
desirable. Their great importance, also, has caused more than the 
usual amount of space to be given to them. 

Physiographic Basis and Causal Sequence. — The authors believe 
that rational geography must rest upon a physiographic foundation. 
It is physiographic conditions which most often furnish the reasons 
for the location of human industries, the development of transporta¬ 
tion loutes, the situation of cities, etc. In other words, when the 
physiographic facts about a given region are clearlv grasped, most 
of the other geographic facts easily arrange themselves as links in a 
causal chain, dims the many details touching a certain locality are 
taught in relation with one another, so that they approach the form 
of a nanative, rather than that of a mere list of statements. 

Physiography has, therefore, been introduced freely ; but not too 
freely, provided each physical fact is shown really to function in 
man’s relation to the earth. Physiography that is clearly shown to 
have a real bearing upon man greatly enriches the subject of geog¬ 
raphy; it is the unused physical geography that is a stumbling-block 
in the grades, and this we have tried to avoid. 

Review of North America. — A common defect in the teaching 
of geography is that the facts previously learned about the United 
States fade from the pupil’s memory while other countries are being 
studied, let the relation between North America and the other con¬ 
tinents is so marked that this defect is unnecessary. For example, 
most of the industries and important principles of physiography and 
climate have received the attention of a child when he lias completed 
a general study of the United States. Foreign lands illustrate the 
same great ideas under slightly different conditions. This means 
that the comprehension of foreign countries may best be gained by 
our children if they use their previous knowledge of the United 
States as a basis of comparison. If, then, this old related knowledge 
is carefully called to mind when the physiography, climate, and 
industries of a foreign land are approached, our pupils will not 
only secure a fuller appreciation of that region, but will also keep 


PREFACE 


Vll 


fresh their knowledge of the United States by bringing it into 
use. 

The above has been a controlling idea in preparing this volume. 
Accordingly in approaching the physiography of South America 
(p. 285), the physiography and climate of Europe (pp. 817-323), 
grazing in Argentina (p. 297), etc., we have reproduced the cor¬ 
responding situation in our own country at some length. Besides 
this, we have included in the text scores of brief comparisons with 
the United States. By this means incidental reviews are continually 
provided, which are especially attractive to both teachers and pupils 
because they contain more of motive than the ordinary 44 review for 
review’s sake.” 

To supplement this kind of review several sets of questions, 
which call for still different comparisons with the United States, are 
included in the book, one series being found at the close of the treat¬ 
ment of each continent. These are likewise rich in motive, inas¬ 
much as they recall leading facts in regard to the United States from 
varying points of view. It should be kept in mind also that each 
set at the same time reviews another continent from a new point of 
view. 

Many of the facts in regard to the United States which these 
questions call for are not presented in the text which treats of the 
various continents, and answers for a few of them are not indicated 
in the maps. Also pupils may have forgotten some of the impor¬ 
tant information about the United States. For these reasons Section 
XIII, covering eighteen pages, is an organized review of North 
America alone. It includes the principal facts about our continent 
which every pupil should know on completing the grades. 

The title of the last section, 44 The United States compared 
with Ollier Countries,” indicates provision for still further review. 
It has seemed to the authors an anti-climax to close several years’ 
study of geography with the Islands of the Pacific , lands farthest away 
from us and of least interest to us. On the other hand, it has been 
deemed highly important that, after all the countries of the world 
have been treated, the closing chapter should summarize the situa¬ 
tion and show the rank of our own land and its relation to others. 
This secures a final reconsideration of the principal facts in our 
geography, while at the same time it brings them into proper re¬ 
lation and perspective. 

On the whole, we are of the opinion that reviews should occupy 


Vlll 


PREFACE 


a large part of the time of instruction; and by the plan followed we 
hope that pupils will have a fairly complete knowledge of the United 
States and the rest of the world in their possession, not only when 
they finish the grades, but in years to follow. 

Types. — Another characteristic of this volume is that it deals 
with many of the fundamental ideas of geography at some length. 
As was suggested in the Preface of the Primary Book, the basal units 
for the study of geography, although constantly in use, are seldom 
adequately presented in the text-books. This applies strikingly, for 
example, to such topics as farm, cattle ranch, irrigation, lumber camp, 
and factory. In order to remedy this defect as far as possible, each 
subject of such a kind is presented in these books with as much de¬ 
tail as space permits, and in connection with that section of country 
in which it seems most prominent. 

I H or example, lumbering, fishing, and the manufacture of cloth, 
boots, and shoes receive their most detailed treatment in connection 
with New England; the mining of coal and iron are and the manu¬ 
facture of iron goods are discussed in connection with the Middle 
Atlantic States; and gold mining, irrigation, and grazing are natu¬ 
rally included under the Western States. 

The industries and objects thus described, being fairly typical of 
industries and objects found elsewhere, are on that account worthy of 
being called types. Through the careful presentation of such types, 
vivid pictures and an appreciation on the part of the pupils are assured. 

The study of the United States has, as suggested above, fur¬ 
nished occasion for detailed treatment of most geographic types. 
Some important features and occupations, however, are not found 
in the United States, and to these we have endeavored to give the 
same careful consideration. For instance, so far as space permits, 
the Brazilian forest is presented as a type of tropical forests (p. 294). 
Other illustrations may be found in the treatment of the linen 
industry on page 336, and of the silk industry on page 359. The 

object is to continue to acquaint the learner properly with the basal 
units of geographj^. 

Relative Worth of Facts. — Good judgment is nothing more than 
proper appreciation of the relative worth of knowledge. Cer¬ 
tainly geography should be utilized for the development of this 
quality. The study of any subject by types tends in this direction, 
because types themselves are the topics of special value. The fre¬ 
quent comparisons provided for at the close of many of the chapters 


PREFACE 


IX 


accomplish the same purpose, for they lift the more important 
thoughts into prominence while neglecting non-essentials. Similarly 
the two review chapters, one a Review and Comparison of our states, 
the other a Comparison of the United States with other countries, 
distinguish in a marked way the leading from the minor facts. But, 
above all, throughout this volume the subject-matter in each chapter 
is presented under few headings, so that the learner is likely to be 
impressed with the simplicity of the situation. The authors, at least, 
cherish the hope that the pupil will see the outline clearly even in the 
midst of the necessary mass of details. Certainly it is one duty of a 
text to teach a child to separate major from minor points and to carry 
the outline in mind. 

The need of more attention to this matter of perspective is most 
clearly shown in the study of the United States by individual states. 
To be sure, there is a call for a knowledge of our own country by 
states, and an endeavor has been made to meet it by several sets of 
questions which require a careful state review. But when the geog¬ 
raphy of the United States is presented primarily by states, the child 
is oppressed and confused by the great number of individual facts 
which have apparently the same rank. Even an adult cannot easily 
escape a feeling of confusion on reading a few pages from any modern 
geography that divides the subject into such small units. The 
remedy, therefore, is to proceed by much larger divisions, i.e. by 
groups of states. 

Thus farming by irrigation is only one topic, and only once 
treated, for the entire western division of states. Several pages are 
devoted to a discussion of the subject, including the manner in which 
irrigation is planned, its influence on the value of land, the localities 
most noted for irrigation, and the cities in the different states that 
are largely indebted to it for their growth. These many details are 
associated as parts of one story. By this means the children’s minds 
may be led to dwell long enough upon one topic to insure interest in 
it; and as there are only a few such topics in the entire chapter on 
the Western States, each indicated, too, by special type, it is not 
difficult to keep in mind the leading points. 

Similar provision for relative values in the study of foreign 
countries is clearly illustrated in the chapter on the British Isles. 

Political Maps. — Since it is necessary to represent more places 
and present more details, the political maps in this volume are for 
the most part larger than in the Primary Book; but they are of the 


X 


PREFACE 


same quality. An important feature is the grading of cities according 
to population—the more important the city, the larger the type used. 
The principal features of relief are placed upon the map, though 
without interfering with the clearness of the political divisions. In 
the color arrangement care has been used to gain an artistic effect, 
and at the same time to preserve the distinctness necessary in such 
maps. 

No attempt has been made to preserve the same scale for the 
different maps. One of the objects of the study of geography 
is to teach the meaning and use of maps. To do this, one of 
the first and most fundamental points is to teach the pupil to 
understand the meaning and importance of the system of propor¬ 
tion, or of “scale.” In one book are maps of various scales; in 
the first atlas, or in the first wall map which the pupil sees, there 
are still different scales. The pupils must be prepared to expect 
and to understand these differences, and it is the teacher’s duty to 
see that they are so prepared. By the insertion of Pennsylvania as 
a key, and by some of our map questions, we have attempted to aid 
in this training of the sense of proportion. 

Other Illustrations. —Besides the relief indicated on the political 
maps there are individual relief maps made especially for this series, 
d he relief maps of the continents are pronounced by experts to be 
the best thus far made. 

I he city maps are intended to serve to illustrate the surround¬ 
ings which determine the growth of the large cities, including, of 
course, the transportation facilities by water and by rail. Attention 
is also called to the maps showing the distribution of the important 
industries and to the diagrams that accompany them. These are all 
placed in the summaries with which they are most closely related; 
but the teacher will naturally find occasion to use them and refer to 
them in connection with the study of the earlier sections. A series 
of maps is also introduced which gives a graphic view of the 
density of population of the continents. All the railway lines of 
each of the continents excepting Europe are also shown either on 
the political maps or else by special maps. The colonies of some 
of the leading nations are given in two full-page illustrations; 
and the gieat commercial routes of the world are represented 
by a single-page map. It is believed that this large number of 
maps, each devoted to a specific object, will be found of great 
value. 


PREFACE 


XI 


Besides the maps and diagrams there are many half-tones of 
photographs selected to supplement the text. They are not intro¬ 
duced merely as pictures, but as part of the fund of information 
offered, lor this purpose the half-tone is the best-adapted; there 
is reason for confidence in the accuracy of such views. 

Acknowledgments. —The political and many of the black maps 
are made by the Matthews-Northrup Company, of Buffalo; the relief 
maps, by E. E. Howell, of Washington. The world maps showing 
the distribution of products are in part based upon maps kindly 
furnished to us by the Philadelphia Commercial Museum, and a few 
of them are actual reproductions of the museum maps. Our jdioto- 
graphs have been selected from various sources, but the larger 
number have been purchased from William II. Ran, of Philadelphia. 


Ill rough the kindness of Commander Webster we have obtained per¬ 


mission to use the photographs reproduced in Figures 406, 432, 433, 
and 434; and Figures 278, 289, 290, 447, 469, 473, and 477 are 
borrowed from Ratzel’s “History of Mankind.” A number of 
European views were loaned by Dr. Heinrich Eies, of Cornell 
University, and the wash drawings were made by Mr. C. W. 
Furlong, also of Cornell. 

We are indebted to Mr. Philip Emerson, of the Cobbet School, 
Lynn, Massachusetts, for his suggestive criticism of the manuscript 
and for further aid in the preparation of the section on Australia. 
Valuable assistance in the preparation of the statistical tables has 
been rendered by Mr. R. II. Whitbeck, of Cornell University. 
While we have drawn upon many sources for the information upon 
which the text in this volume is based, the extensive use that has 
been made of Mill’s “International Geography” and the “States¬ 
man’s Yearbook”—books which every geography teacher should 
have at hand — calls for special acknowledgment. 

The State Text-book Committee is indebted to the following for 
assistance in furnishing information and photographs: The Postal 
Telegraph Cable Co., California Promotion Committee, Figs. 101, 
170, 525, 528, 549, 618; Southern Pacific Co., A, B, C, I), N, P, R, 
S, W, 6, 125 A, 125 B, 133, 514, 515, 536, 538, 540, 543, 544, 546, 
552, 555, 556, 557, 558, 564, 567, 569, 570, 571, 572, 573, 585, 601, 
604, 619, 623—3, 629—3; Salt Lake R. R., 144,519; Northern Pacific 
Ry., 151, K; Santa Fe Ry., L; Pacific Coast S. S. Co., 14, F, 177, T, 
272; Pillsbury Picture Co., J, M, O, 17, 158, 160; Pacific Tank Co., 
137; Holt Co., 141; Union Iron Works, 148, 535; South Africa British 


Xll 


PREFACE 


Co., BB, CC, EE; Edison Electric Co., 550; Putnam and Valen¬ 
tine, 565; Petaluma Incubator Co., 581; F. A. Shipley Co., 589; 
Turrill & Miller, 595, 610, 620, 625-6; Sylmar Olive Association, 
605; James & Dorman, 615; Standard Oil Co., 616; Port Costa 
Milling Co., 617 ; Chambers of Commerce of: Siskiyou County, 
186; Los Angeles, 574; Petaluma, 580; Napa, 603; Sacramento, 
602; King’s County Promotion Association, 545; Sacramento Val¬ 
ley Development Association, 621; Booker T. Washington, 96; 
Pres. Chicago University, 124 A; Pres. Northwestern University, 
124 B; Supt. J. G. O’Neill, 138; J. B. Brown, 139, 140, 143, 607; 
Supt. Duncan Mackinnon, 142; Job Wood, Jr., 146; Supt. C. L. 
McLane, 145, 626-4; Supt. Mark Keppel, 153,154; Supt. James A. 
Barr, 577, 625-4 ; Supt. De Witt Montgomery, 600, 611; Supt. Mrs. 
Minnie Abrams, 613; Supt. J. W. McClymonds, 625-5; J. H. 
Francis, 625-2; Supt. H. A. Adrian, 626-1; Le Roy Smith, 627; 
Warring Wilkinson, 628; Pres. Benjamin Ide Wheeler, 629-1; 
Pres. David Starr Jordan, 629-2; T. J. Phillips, 630-3; Supt. A. 

L. Hamilton, 575; Congressman S. C. Smith, 630-1; W. H. Weeks, 
625-1; S. C. Schofield, 625-3; Mrs. F. J. Sifford, 622; M. E. 
Dittmar, 614; C. C. Teague, 598, 599; George P. Robinson, 596; 
John Whicher, 593; Hemet Land and Water Co., 592; J. A. Driffill, 
590; J. C. Brewster, 586, 587, 606; F. H. Atwater, 582; L. E. 
Chenoweth, 578 ; C. W. Nelson, 559, 560 ; George A. Bald, 554; A. 

M. Seymour, 551; Mare Island Navy Yard, 533; A. H. Slade, 534, 
624; 11. R. Fitch, 522, 529, 626—2, 626—3; George E. Knox, 520; 
P. H. Kerrigan, 513; Charles L. Owens, 273, FF, 623-1, 630-2; 
State Forester Lull, 152, 608, 609 ; Lewis E. Aubury, 612, 516; Lou 
G. Hare, 531 ; Supt. D. L. Thornbury, 532 ; Leroy Anderson, 579 ; 
Mrs. H. M. Sitton, 539. 


TABLE OF CONTENTS 


PART I. NORTH AMERICA 

Section I. Physiography of North America .... . . 

The Growth of the Continent, 1. The Coal Period, 2. The Moun¬ 
tains and Plateaus, 4. Volcanoes, 6. The Trough between the 
Two Mountain Systems, 9. The Great Ice Age, 12. The Coast 
Line, 1G. Size, Shape, and Position, 17. Summary, 18. 

Section II. Plants, Animals, and Peoples ....... 

Plants of the North, 20. Animals of the North, 21. Plants and 
Animals in Western North America, 22. Plants and Animals of 
the Tropical Zone, 25. Plants and Animals in the Temperate Part 
of North America, 26. Peoples. Eskimos, 30. Indians, 30. The 
Spaniards, 32. The French, 33. The English, 34. Westward 
Migration, 36. Slavery, 36. Immigrants to America, 37. 

Section III. Latitude, Longitude, and Standard Time .... 
Latitude and Longitude. Need of a Means for locating Places, 39. 
The Streets of a City, 39. Distance North and South of the 
Equator (Latitude), 40. East and West Distances on the Earth 
(Longitude), 41. Standard Time, 44. 

Section IV. United States. 

Section V. New England . .. 

Physiography and Climate, 49. The Forests. Cutting the Timber, 50. 
Floating the Logs to the Mills, 51. Sawmills and Paper Mills, 52. 
The Rocks. Granite, 53. Marble, 54. Slate, 55. Fishing. Mack¬ 
erel, 55. Halibut and Codfish, 56. Other Ocean Foods, 57. Agri¬ 
culture, 57. Manufacturing. Cotton Manufacturing, 60. Wool 
Manufacturing, 60. Leather Manufacturing, 61. Metal Manufac¬ 
turing, 61. Largest Cities and Chief Shipping Routes. The Large 
Cities, 62. Boston and Vicinity, 62. Summer Resorts, 63. 

Section VI. Middle Atlantic States. 

Physiography, 67. Climate, 71. Forests, 72. Iish and Oysters, <2. 
Agriculture. Dairying, 73. Tobacco, 74. Fruits and Vegetables, 
74. Mining. Salt, 76. Coal, 76. Oil and Gas, 78. Iron Ore, 79. 
Iron and Ikon Goods, 80. Glass, Pottery, Bricks, etc., 83. Largest 
Cities and Chief Shipping Routes. Location of New York City, 83. 
Erie Canal, 84. Railways of New York, 85. New York City, 87. 
Philadelphia and its Chief Shipping Routes, 92. Baltimore, 93. 
District of Columbia, 94. Richmond and Norfolk, 94. 


PAGE 

1 


20 


39 


47 

49 


67 


XUl 


X1Y 


TABLE OF CONTENTS 


Section VII. Southern States .......... 

Physiography, 98. Climate, 99. Forests, 100. Agriculture. Cotton, 
102. Rice, 104. Sugar Cane and Sugar, 104. Fruits, 100. Other Crops, 

107. Grazing, 107. Mineral Products. Coal and Iron, 108. Stone, 

108. Gold and Precious Stones, 108. Phosphates, 108. Salt and Oil, 
108. Manufacturing, 108. Leading Cities and Shipping Routes. 
New Orleans, 111. Memphis and Atlanta, 113. Nashville, 113. 
Texas Cities, 114. Oklahoma, 114. 

Section VIII. Central States .......... 

Physiography and Climate, 119. Settlement of the Mississippi 
Valley, 119. Agriculture. A Farm in Central Ohio, 121. Fruits, 
122. Fine Stock in Kentucky, 123. Caverns, 123. Corn, 124. 
Wheat, 125. Other Grains, 120. Cattle Ranching, 126. Lumber¬ 
ing, 130. Mineral Products. Building Stone, 131. Petroleum 
and Natural Gas, 132. Coal, 132. Iron Ore, 132. Copper, 134. 
Lead, Zinc, etc., 135. Clays, 135. Principal Cities and Shipping 
Routes, 136. The Lake Cities. Duluth and Superior, 136. Chi¬ 
cago, 137. Stock Yards of Chicago, 137. Manufacturing in Chicago, 
139. Other Facts about Chicago, 139. Other Cities along the 
Lakes, 139. The River Cities. Cities along the Mississippi, 140. 
Cities along the Missouri, 142. Cities in the Ohio Valley, 143. 

Section IX. The Western States ......... 

Early Settlements, 147. Physiography, 149. Climate, 150. Mineral 
Products, 152. Lumbering, 155. Agriculture, 157. Ranching, 161. 
Territories, 163. Scenery. The Yellowstone Park, 164. Colo¬ 
rado Canyon, 165. Yosemite Valley, 169. The Cities. Cities in 
the Interior, 169. Cities on the Pacific Slope, 170. 

Section X. Territories and Dependencies of the United States 

Alaska. Climate and Physiography, 177. Fishing, 178. Whaling, 
178. Sealing, 178. Mining, 179. Cuba and Porto Rico. Physiog¬ 
raphy and Climate, 180. Forests and Minerals, 181. Agriculture, 
181. The Inhabitants, 182. Cities, 182. The Hawaiian Islands. 
The Volcanoes, 184. Climate, 184. Industries, 185. The Hawaiian 
Islands as a Coaling Station, 185. Guam and Samoa, 186. The 
Philippine Islands. Physiography, 186. Climate, 187. Resources 
and Industries, 188. Cities, 190. 

Section XL Countries North of the United States .... 

Canada and Newfoundland. History, 192. Physiography and Cli¬ 
mate, 193. Lumbering, 194. Fishing, 195. Sealing, 196. Agricul¬ 
ture and Ranching, 197. Mining, 199. Trade Routes and Cities, 

199. Islands North of North America, 202. 

Section XII. Countries South of the United States 

* • • • • 

Mexico. Physiography and Climate, 206. History, 207. Agricul¬ 
ture and Ranching, 208. Southern Mexico, 210. The Mines, 210. 
The Cities, 211. Central America. The Republics, 212. The Panama 
Canal, 214. The West Indies. Jamaica, 215. Haiti, 215. Lesser 
Antilles, 215. The Bahamas, 216. The Bermudas, 217. 


PAGE 

98 


119 


147 


177 


192 


206 


TABLE OF CONTENTS 


XV 


Section XIII. Review of North America. 

Physical Geography, 219. Population, 220. City and Country, 221. 
Coi ntr\ , 222. Cities, 226. Dependence of Different Sections upon 
One Another, 231. Relation to our Territories and Dependencies, 
231. Other Countries of North America, 232. Our Relation to 
Other Countries, 232. Transportation Routes, 233. Influence 
o* Steam and Electricity, 234. Influence of Modern Inventions on 
Mode of Life, 234. Influence of our Surroundings on Education 
and Government, 235. 


PAGE 

219 


PART II. GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 

Section I. The Earth’s Movements ...... . 239 

Form and Size, 239. Daily Motion, 239. Yearly Motion, 240. The 
Attraction of Gravitation, 241. Length of Day and Night, 242. 

The Zones, 242. 

Section II. Winds and Rain .......... 244 

Winds. Review, 244. Effect of a Stove, 244. Winds of the Earth, 

245. Effect of Rotation, 240. Wind Belts, 240. Belt of Calms 
and Belts of Horse Latitudes, 247. Effect of Revolution, 248. 

Rain. Causes for Rain, 248. Rain Belts in North America, 251. 
Other Rainy and Arid Regions of Northern Hemisphere, 252. South 
of the Equator, 253. Belt of Calms, 253. Migration of Rain Belts, 

254. Eastern United States and Canada, 254. Weather Maps, 258. 
Cyclonic Storms in Europe, 258. Sea and Land Breezes ; Mon¬ 
soons, 259. 

Section III. Ocean Movements and Distribution of Temperature . . 202 

Wind Waves, 202. Tides. What the Tides Are, 202. Height of 
the Tidal Wave, 202. Ocean Currents. Cause of Ocean Currents, 

203. The North Atlantic Eddy, 203. The Gulf Stream, 204. The 
Labrador Current, 205. The Currents in the North Pacific Ocean, 

200. Eddies of the Southern Oceans, 206. Effects of Ocean Cur¬ 
rents in North America : Review, 200. Effects on Other Regions, 

208. Distribution of Temperature, 208. 

Section IV. Peoples. 270 

Divisions of Mankind, 270. Distribution of Races, 278. Distribution 
of Religion, 278. 


PART TIL SOUTH AMERICA 

Physiography, 285. Climate, 287. Plant and Animal Life, 288. The 
People, 290. Brazil. Physiography and Climate, 292. The Tropi¬ 
cal Forest, 294. Products of the Forest, 294. Rubber, 295. Coffee 
Raising, 295. Other Industries in Brazil, 290. Cities, 290. Argentina. 
Physiography and Climate, 290. Cattle Raising, 297. Farming, 297. 
Manufacturing and Commerce, 298. Cities, 298. Uruguay and 


XVI 


TABLE OF CONTENTS 


Paraguay. Uruguay, 299. Paraguay, 300. The Guianas and Vene¬ 
zuela. The Guianas, 300. Venezuela, 301. Tropical Andean Coun¬ 
tries. Points of Resemblance, 302. Panama, 304. Colombia, 304. 
Ecuador, 305. Peru, 306. Bolivia, 308. Chile. Physiography and 
Climate, 309. Mineral Wealth, 310. Agriculture, Manufacturing, 
and General Development, 310. Cities, 311. Islands near the 
Continent, 311. 

PART IV. EUROPE 

Section I. Physiography, Climate, and People. 

Physiography. Highlands and Lowlands, 317. Coal Beds, 319. The 
Great Ice Sheet, 319. The Coast Line, 319. Climate. Influence 
of Latitude, 320. Resemblance to Western North America, 321. 
Influence of Cyclonic Storms, 321. Effect of Mountain Ranges, 
322. Inland Seas, 323. People, 323. Influence of the Discovery 
of America, 324. 

Section II. The British Isles .......... 

Position, Size, and Importance, 326. Inhabitants, 326. Physiography 
and Climate, 327. Agriculture, 328. Fishing, 329. Mining, 330. 
Reasons for Development of Manufacturing, 331. Woolen and 
Cotton Manufactures, 333. Iron and Steel Manufacturing, 333. 
Ireland, 334. Location of Principal Cities, 336. London, 337. 
Other English Cities, 340. Cities of Scotland, 341. Cities of 
Ireland, 342. Fuller Reasons for the Greatness of the British 
Empire, 342. Government, 344. 

Section III. The Netherlands and Belgium. 

The Netherlands (Holland). Physiography, 346. People and Gov¬ 
ernment, 347. Agriculture, 347. Manufacturing, 348. Commerce, 
349. Colonies, 349. Cities, 350. Belgium. Physiography, 350. 
People and Government, 351. Agriculture, 352. Mining and 
Manufacturing, 352. Commerce, 353. Cities, 354. 

Section IV. France. 

People and Government, 355. Physiography and Climate, 355. Agri¬ 
culture, 356. Minerals, 357. Manufacturing, 357. Wool and 
Cotton Manufactures, 357. Silk Manufacturing, 358. Other 
Manufactures, 359. Paris, 360. ( Location , 360; Paris as an Art 

Center, 361; Manufactures of Paris , 362; Commerce of Paris , 362.) 
Other Cities, 362. Commerce of France, 362. Colonies, 363. 

Section V. Spain and Portugal ...... 

People and Government, 364. Physiography and Climate, 365. Agri¬ 
culture and Grazing, 366. Mining, 367. Manufacturing, 367. 
Principal Cities of Spain, 367. Colonies of Spain, 369. Principal 
Cities and Colonies of Portugal, 369. 

Section VI. Norway, Sweden, and Denmark 

' ***••• 

People, 373. Physiography and Climate, 373. Agricultural Districts, 


PAGE 


317 


326 


346 


355 


364 


373 


TABLE OF CONTENTS 


374. Industries and Cities of Norway, 375. Scenery on the West¬ 
ern Coast, 377. Industries and Cities of Sweden, 378. Industries 
and Cities of Denmark, 379. Colonies of Denmark, 380. 

Section VII. Russia. 

Size and Position, 382. Physiography, 382. Climate, 383. People 
and Government, 384. Lumbering, 385. Farming and Grazing, 886. 
Mineral V ealth, 380. Manufacturing, 380. Principal Cities and 
their Commerce. Moscow and Nijni Novgorod, 387. St. Peters¬ 
burg, 388. Odessa, 388. Warsaw and Lodz, 388. 


Section VIII. German Empire. 

Extent and Position, 390. People and Government, 390. Defense, 
392. Physiography, 393. Climate, 304. Forests, 395. Agriculture 
and Grazing, 395. Mining, 396. Manufacturing, 390. Germany’s 
Rapid Advance, 397. Colonies and Emigrants, 398. Principal 
Cities and their Commerce. Berlin, 399. Interior Cities near 
Berlin, 400. Seaports, 401. Cities along the Rhine, 401. 


Section IX. Switzerland .. 

Physiography and Climate, 405. People and Government, 406. Farm¬ 
ing, 407. Manufacturing, 407. Leading Cities, 407. Scenery and 
Tourists, 409. 


Section X. Italy. 

Extent and Position, 411. People and Government, 411. Physiog¬ 
raphy and Climate, 412. Agriculture, 412. Mining and Fishing, 
413. Manufacturing, 414. Principal Cities, 414. ( Naples and 
Vicinity , 414 ; Ancient and Modern Nome, 41(5; Other Italian Cities , 
417.) 

Section XT. Austria-Hungary .......... 

Physiography and Climate, 421. People and Government, 422. Natu¬ 
ral Resources, 424. Manufacturing and Commerce, 425. Principal 
Cities, 426. Small Countries, 420. 


Section XII. The Balkan Peninsula ........ 

Physiography and Climate, 428. People, 429. Montenegro, 429. Ser- 
via, 429. Boumania and Bulgaria, 430. Turkey in Europe, 431. 
Greece, 432. Islands near Greece, 434. 


PART V. 


ASIA, AFRICA, AUSTRALIA AND ISLAND 
GROUPS 


Section I. Asia ............. 

Size and Position, 439. Physiography and Climate, 439. Plants and 
Animals, 441. People, 443. Turkish or Ottoman Empire, 444. 
{Conditions in the Empire , 444 ; The Holy Land , 445 ; Mesopotamia, 440.) 
Arabia, 447. Persia, 448. Afghanistan, 449. Russia in Asia, 449. 
India, 451. ( Physiography and Climate , 451; Farming , 452; Forests 
and Wild Animals , 453; Mining and Manufacturing , 453; Famines 


xvii 

PAGE 


382 


390 


405 


411 


421 


428 


439 


2—A O 


XV111 


TABLE OF CONTENTS 


PAGE 

and Plagues, 454; Government, 455; Baluchistan and Burma, 456; Base 
of Himalayas, 456; Principal Cities, 457.) Ceylon, 458. Indo-China 
and THE Malay Peninsula, 458. (Siam, 458 ; French Indo-China, 459; 
Straits Settlements, 459.) Chinese Empire, 460. (Area and Population, 

460; Climate, 460 ; People and Civilization, 462 ; National Resources, 

463; Government ,464; Principal Cities, 465.) Korea, 466. Japan, 466. 
(Physiography and Climate, 466; People and Government, 467 ; Recent 
Advance, 468; Resources, 469; Principal Cities, 469.) 

Section II. Africa .......... 472 

Physiography, 472. Climate, 476. Plants and Animals, 477. The 
People, 478. Exploration and Settlement, 478. Northern Africa. 
Political Divisions, 479. The Sahara, 480. Egypt and the Neigh¬ 
boring British Territory, 481. (The Nile, 481; Agriculture , 484; 

The 1 eople, 484 ; Suez Canal, 485 ; Cities, 486.) The Barbary States, 

487. Southern Africa. Comparison with Northern Africa, 488. The 
People, 488. Agriculture and Grazing, 490. Mineral Wealth, 491. 
Commerce and Cities, 492. Central Africa. The Rivers, 493. The 
People, 493. Divisions of Central Africa. 495. Need of Railways, 

497. Islands near Africa, 498. 


Section III. Australia and Island Groups 

• • • • • • 
Australia. Physiography, 500. Climate, 501. Plants, 502. History, 

•j02. Sheep Raising, 504. Animal Products, 505. Agriculture, 505. 
Mining, 506. Manufacturing, 506. Cities, 506. Island Groups. New 
Zealand, 508. The East Indies, 509. Islands of the Pacific, 512. 

The United States compared with Other Countries 

Area and Population, 515. Leading Raw Products, 516. Manufac¬ 
turing and Commerce, 520. Dependence upon Other Nations, 522. 
Exports and Imports, 524. Reasons for the Rank of the United 
States, 525. 


Index 


527 


PAET YI. CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT 

Aside to Teacher, 545. Note to Teacher, 546. Lists of References, 
548. General View of State, 551. Coast Region, 554. Great 
Valley" Region, 565. Sierran Region, 570. Southern California, 
582. Dairying, 589. Agriculture, 592. Fruit Growing, 599. For¬ 
ests and Lumber, 608. Mineral Products, 612. Manufacturing, 
618. Transportation, 620. Earthquakes, 623. History, 624. Edu¬ 
cation, 627. Government, 632. Cities, 634. Last of All, 635. Gen¬ 
eral Questions, 636. Summary of Values, 638. Population of 
California, 639. Height of Mountains, 640. Counties of Califor¬ 
nia, 641. Geographical Names, 642. 

Index . 

. 

Appendix. Tables of Area, Population, etc. 


645 


LIST OF MAPS 


COLORED POLITICAL MAPS 


KIOURK 

42. Norlh America. 

44. United States. 

47. New England. 

62. Middle Atlantic States. 

87. Southern States. 

104. Central States. 

131. Western States. 

157. Alaska. 

103. West Indies, with Map of Cuba and Porto Rico. 

172. United States Dependencies in the Pacific. 

178. Dominion of Canada and Newfoundland. 

194. Mexico and Central America. 

281. South America. 

313. The British Isles. 

337. Western Europe. 

353. Europe. 

375. Central Europe. 

403. Asia. 

41(5. Holy Land. 

443. Africa. 

407. Australia. 

511. Mercator Chart of World. 

512. The Hemispheres. 

517. California. Northern Section. 

518. California. Southern Section. 

520. San Francisco and Vicinity. 

537. Los Angeles, San Diego, Santa Barbara and Vicinity. 


RELIEF MAPS 


9. The Continental Ice Sheet. 

10. North America. 

43. Physiographic Map of the United States (with names). 
45. United States. 

40. New England. 

63. Middle Atlantic States. 

80. Southern States. 


xix 


XX 


LIST OF MAPS 


FIGURE 

103. Central States. 

130. Western States. 

282. South America. 

304. Europe. 

402. Asia. 

444. Africa. 

468. Australia. 

516. California. 

CITY MAPS 

48. Boston and Vicinity. 

77. Buffalo and Vicinity. 

81. New York City and Vicinity. 

82. Baltimore and Washington. 

88. New Orleans, Memphis, Birmingham, and Ailanta. 
105. Chicago and Great Lakes. 

132. San Francisco, Portland, Tacoma, and Seattle. 

179. Montreal and Quebec. 

322. London and Liverpool. 

338. Paris and its Vicinity. 

374. Berlin and its Vicinity. 

398. Constantinople and its Vicinity. 

451. The Lower Nile. 


MAPS ILLUSTRATING CLIMATE 

247. Shifting of Wind and Bain Belts. 

248. Shifting of Wind and Bain Belts. 

249. Wind Belts of the Earth. 

250. Bainfall of the World. 

251. Winds and Bainfall of South America. 

252. Winds and Bainfall of Western United States. 

253. Winds and Bainfall of Africa. 

254. Winds and Bainfall of Australia. 

25o. Summer Winds and Bainfall in Southern Hemisphere. 

256. Winter Winds and Bainfall in Southern Hemisphere. 

259. Weather Map. 

260. Weather Map. 

261. Cyclonic Storm in Europe. 

262. Summer Monsoons, India. 

263. Winter Monsoons, India. 

264. Currents of the North Atlantic. 

267. Ocean Currents of the World. 

268. Isothermal Chart of the World for July. 

269. Isothermal Chart of the World for January. 

270. Isothermal Chart of the United States for January. 

271. Isothermal Chart of the United States for July. 


LIST OF MAPS 


XXl 


FIGURE 

310. Rainfall of Europe. 

314. Rainfall Map of the British Isles. 

317. Coal Fields of Great Britain. 

329. The Netherlands (showing relation to sea level). 
445. Vegetation Zones of Africa. 

553. Rainfall in California. 


PRODUCT MAPS 

209. Principal Corn-raising Region of the United States. 

211. Principal Wheat-raising Region of the United States. 

213. Principal Cotton-raising Region of the United States. 

216. Principal Tobacco-raising Region of the United States. 

220. Coal Fields of the United States. 

223. Iron, Copper, Oil, and Gas-producing Districts of the United States. 

224. Principal Gold and Silver Regions of the United States. 

231 Principal Forest Regions of the United States. 

232. Fishing Grounds near North America. 

234. Manufacturing Regions of the United States. 

305. Coal Fields of Europe. 

484. World Map for Corn. 

485. World Map for Wheat. 

487. World Map for Cotton. 

489. World Map for Sheep. 

491. World Map for Coal. 

493. World Map for Iron. 

495. World Map for Silver. 

497. World Map for Gold. 

499. Manufacturing Districts of the World. 

504. World Map for Coffee. 

506. World Map for Cane and Beet Sugar. 

509. World Map for Rice. 

553. National Forests in California. 

612. Mineral Map of California. 


DENSITY OF POPULATION MAPS 

39. North America. 

207. United States. 

208. United States (center of population). 

288. South America. 

303. Europe. 

446. Africa. 

472. Australia. 

482. Density of Population Comparison (diagram). 


OTHER MAPS 

30. Political Map of North America in 1760. 

32. Settled Part of the United States, 1790. 


XXII 


LIST OF MAPS 


FIGURE 

38. Standard Time Belts of United States. 

59. Map showing the Fall Line. 

60. The Erie Canal. 

227. Railroads of the United States. 

237. Railroads of Eastern United States. 

238. Navigable Rivers of the United States. 

240. Growth of the United States. 

244. Map of the Zones. 

275. Races of Mankind. 

277. Distribution of Religions. 

306. Ice Sheet of Europe. 

312. The British Empire. 

354. Colonies of United States, Germany, France, and the Netherlands. 
510. Transportation Routes and Telegraph Lines. 

516. Comparative Size of California. 

531. Monterey Bay and Vicinity. 

532. Humboldt Bay and Vicinity. 



Fig. B. 

“ The breaking waves dash high ...” at Point Conception, California. 













Fig. C. 

El Capitan, Yosemite Valley. 



















First Americans 


Type of North American Indian 










Part I 

NORTH AMERICA 


W,^oo 


I. PHYSIOGRAPHY OF NORTH AMERICA 


The Growth of the Continent.—There are over one hundred 
million persons in North America at the present time, although 
a century ago there were scarcely one tenth of that number. This 
wonderful growth has been largely due to the useful and valuable 
mineral products of the earth; to the soil and climate which have 
allowed many different kinds of plants and animals to thrive ; and 
to the rivers, waterfalls, lakes, and harbors which have made manu¬ 
facturing and shipping easy. 

As it takes time to build a house, and to prepare the boards from 
trees, the nails from iron ore, and the bricks from clay, so it takes 
time for the formation of minerals and rocks and for the building of a 
continent. In fact, millions of years have been required for that work. 

The story, telling how North America was made, is a very inter¬ 
esting one. It has been discovered by a careful study of the rocks ; 
and although there are many questions that no man is yet able to 


answer, we are prepared to tell a part of the story. 

At one time the earth was probably a white-hot sphere like the 
sun; but in time the outside cooled to a crust of solid rock. I he 
interior, still heated, continued to shrink and grow smaller, as most 
substances do when cooling. This caused the solid crust to settle 
and wrinkle, much as the skin of an apple does when the fruit is dry¬ 
ing. Water collecting in the depressions formed the oceans, while 
between them, where the elevation of the earth s crust was greatest, 
rocks appeared above tlfe sea level. I hus North America and the 
other continents were born. 

In its babyhood, although the center of the continent was still 
a broad sea, the eastern and western parts doubtless resembled the 
West Indies of to-day, which you will find on the map of North 
America (Fig. 42, following p. 48). I hose islands are the highest 
parts of a mountain chain. They seem to be separated only because 


l 




2 


NORTH AMERICA 




the ridges upon which they rest do not rise high enough to reach 
above the water (Fig. 1). 

In early times North America consisted of chains of islands. 
V iually, the land rose higher, forming one mountain range in the 


Fig. 1. 

The West Indian region as it would appear if the ocean water were removed. 


East, and other ranges in the West. Then the plains between the 
mountains slowly emerged from the ocean. 

The Coal Period. Ages after the beginning, a period arrived 
when in the northern part of North 
America it was much warmer than 
now, and the rains were far heavier. 

During that period our coal was made 
out of plants. Beneath the coal beds, 
in the rock which was once soil, roots 
of plants may still be seen, while stems 
of plants, and even trunks of trees 
changed to coal, reach up into the 
coal beds. Also a careful examina¬ 
tion with the microscope, or at times 
even with the naked eye, shows that 
coal is composed of bits of plants 


Fig. 2. 


Rock containing a fossil fern which 
grew in the swamps of the coal 
period. 





PHYSIOGRAPHY OF NORTH AM FRIG A 


3 


closely pressed together. Frequently the full form of a fern or leaf 




may be seen (Fig. 2). 

As the crust of the earth shrinks and wrinkles, the land is raised 
and lowered. Even now it is slowly moving in some places, and was 
doing the same during the coal period. At that time some of the old 
sea bottom was raised above the water, forming extensive plains in 
the eastern part of North 
America. Plants had 
long been growing; and 
these plains were so 
low and level that vast 
swamps were produced 
(F ig. 3), on which the 
vegetation was ex¬ 
tremely rank, like a 
tropical jungle. After 
the swamp plants had 
grown for hundreds of 
years, the plains sank 
beneath the sea, and the 
vegetation became covered with layers of sand, gravel, and mud, 
which have since hardened into rock. 

After another long period the sea bottom emerged once more, and 
the dense swamp vegetation returned; but this time the plants grew 
with their roots in the ocean mud which had buried the earlier 
swamp. After many more years the plains again sank, and the 
swamp vegetation was buried as before. This rising and sinking of 

the land continued for 
ages, one set of layers of 
rock, soil, and vegetation 
being covered up by 
another, until many such 
sets were formed. 


Fig. 3. 

The way the coal swamps appeared, so far as we can 
tell from the fossils which have been preserved. 


Fig. 4. 

A view in the Dismal Swamp of Virginia. Compare 
Fig. 3 with this to see how different the trees are. 


Though the swamps were, 
no doubt, somewhat similar to 
those which may now be seen 
in many places, the vegeta¬ 
tion grew far more thickly, 
perhaps even more thickly 
than in the jungles of 



















4 


NORTH AMERICA 


India or the everglades of Florida. Also the plants were so different from 
those of the present (Fig. 4), that not a single species now living grew in 
the coal swamps. 

, When the plants died, they fell into the water, making a woody mat¬ 
ting which did not fully decay, because the water prevented air from 
reaching it. If it had been dug up and dried, it might have made good 
fuel. Indeed, it is now the custom in Ireland, Norway, and some other 
cool, moist lands to dig such matter out of the swamps and dry it, forming 
peat, a fuel used for cooking and heating. 

Some of the poorer coals of the West, known as lignite , are little more 
than peat beds partly changed to mineral coal. Other coal, called anthra¬ 
cite, found especially in the mountains of Pennsylvania, has been changed 
so greatly that it is as hard as some rocks, and is known as hard coal. 
But most of the coal that is mined, — as that of western Pennsylvania 
and the Central States, — although quite like a mineral, and harder than 
lignite, is not so hard as anthracite. This is called soft or bituminous coal. 

The woody matting that gathered in some of the swamps grew 
to be scores of feet in thickness; but, on being covered up, it was 
piessed more tightly together. As the number of layers above 
increased, causing the pressure to become very great, it gradually 

changed into coal, making 
coal beds that are often 
from six to twelve feet in 
thickness. 

All this time, and at 
other periods during the for¬ 
mation of the continent, iron, 
copper, gold, silver, building 
stones, and other materials 
that we need every day, were 
also being slowly formed; 
but we cannot now tell their 
story. 

The Mountains and 
Plateaus.—During the 
millions of years that the 
continent was growing to 
its present form, there were rising, in the East and West, mountain 
systems and surrounding plateaus that were to have a great influence 
upon our climate, and therefore upon our crops, our animals, and our¬ 
selves. Being very old and much worn down, the eastern mountains, 



Fig. 5. 


Tilted layers in the Rocky Mountains of Colorado. 
They were deposited as horizontal beds in the sea, 
as those of the Colorado plateau were (Fig. 7); 
but, during the mountain folding, they have been 
turned up on end, and then worn away and irregu¬ 
larly carved by the rains. 


















PHYSIOGRAPHY OF NORTH AMERICA 


5 


called the Appalachians (big. 10), tire neither very high nor very 
rugged, though they have some peaks which reach more than a mile 
above sea level. 1 he western mountains, or Cordilleras , being 
younger and therefore less worn, are more rugged, and have peaks 
rising three miles and more above sea level. At the base of the 
Appalachians is a narrow plateau rarely more than fourteen hundred 
feet high; but the Cordilleras tower above a broad plateau which is 
itself more than a mile in height, or as high as the mountain peaks of 
the East. 

Many of the rocks of the mountains and plateaus were deposited 
as sediment in the sea and afterward raised to their present position 
by the movements of the earth’s crust. In spite of their great eleva¬ 
tion, the plateaus have remained level because the rock layers, or 
strata , of which they are made, were kept in a horizontal or level 
position while being uplifted. This can be seen where rivers have 
cut deep channels in the earth, showing the layers of rock to be nearly 
as level as when they were a part of the ocean floor. 

On the other hand, the wrinkling of the earth’s crust has in 
some places broken and folded the rock layers, and formed lofty 
mountain ranges in Avhicli the strata have been tilted and upturned, 
instead of remaining level (Fig. 5). 

A part of the height of mountains is due to the fact that they rest upon 
a platform of tablelands about them. Therefore a mountain crest two miles 
above sea level may really rise less than a mile above the plateau at its base. 

Mountains are lower than they would be if they had not been attacked 
for ages by the weather and the rivers. Not only have they been lowered by 
these means, but also greatly carved and sculptured, being cut into ridges 
and peaks, and crossed by deep canyons which the rivers have dug out. 

After mountains have ceased rising, their peaks are lowered, and their 
valleys broadened, until they lose much of their mountain character, as in 
the case of the Appalachians. Indeed, they may even be reduced to a 
series of low hills, as in southern New England, which is really an ancient 
mountain region now worn down to its very roots. 

The folding, breaking, and sculpturing of the mountain rocks have 
had an important effect upon mining. As you see from Figure 7, these 
changes often bring to view valuable minerals which were formed ages 
ago and are now deeply buried in the strata. 

As we have seen, some mineral deposits, like coal, were laid down in 
beds between other layers of rock; but many valuable minerals, such as 
gold, silver, and copper ores, were deposited in cracks of the mountain 
rock, forming veins. Into these cracks hot water, often heated by deeply 
buried masses of lava, has brought valuable metals and deposited them in 


6 


NOUTII AMERICA 


veins. Iron ore also has been deposited by water in beds and veins, though 
not always by hot water. 

Volcanoes. — Hundreds of mountain peaks in the West, instead 
of being made in the manner just described, are volcanoes. These 
are built of molten rock that has been forced to the surface from 
within the earth. Though no longer active, these peaks are known 
to be volcanoes because of their cone shape, the hollows or craters in 
their tops, and the lava and volcanic ash of which they are made. 

Doubtless some of these volcanoes have recently erupted; indeed, one, 
Mt. St. Helens in \\ ashington, is rejjorted to have been in eruption about 
a h^f century ago. Another, a hundred miles southeast of Mt. Shasta 
(lig. 6), poured forth lava a short time ago. This is known because the 
lava flow dammed up a stream, forming a lake, the waters of which rose 
into the surrounding forest, and killed the trees; but the trees still stand 
in the lake, not having had time to decay. 

Hundreds of thousands of square miles of this western country are 
covered by lava flows. The soil produced by decay of the lava is often 
extremely fertile, and that is one of the chief reasons why the central and 
eastern pait, of the state of Washington, which is largely covered with it, 
has become noted for its fruit and wheat. There the lava flowed out from 



Fig. E. 


Vesuvius in eruption in 1872, showing the steam rising from the crater 

that is flowing down the slopes. 


also from the lava 
























Fig. 7. 


A section in the earth, where the rocks are folded, to show how a bed of valuable mineral, 
such as the black layer, may be brought to light by folding and river cutting, while 
elsewhere it is deeply buried. 

R M A 



Fig. 8. 

Section across the United States, to show the two highlands and the great trough between. 
A, Appalachians; M, Mississippi; if, Rocky Mountains. 



l SOUTH 
'DAKOTA 

I 


gOlOTHS' 


; n *9«a»ka I 


I KANSAS. 


Kf rxtwnu 


raasftm; 

. ctOPOA 

i ••• 


Fig. 0. 

Model showing the distance which the Great Ice Sheet reached in the United States 
(Model made by E. E. Howell, Washington, D.C.) 
































PHYSIOGRAPHY OF NORTH AMERICA 


9 


great cracks oi fissures and flooded immense areas of country. The area 
of the lava flows in the Columbia and Snake river valleys is more than 
twenty-five times as great as the area of Massachusetts. 

The Trough between the Two Mountain Systems.—From the moun¬ 
tain systems of the Fast and West, the land slopes gently toward the 
Mississippi River (T ig. 10), which flows in the trough made by the up¬ 
lift of the two sides of the continent. Measure the width of this trough 
on the map of the United States. 

This extensive lowland has had a long history, like the mountains. 
In the early ages so much of it was under water that a great sea 
extended from where the Gulf of Mexico now lies to the Arctic 
Ocean. In the rock layers are found many remains, or fossils , of 
shells, corals, and fish that lived in the sea of this ancient time. 
Upon dying and dropping to the bottom, these animals were en¬ 
tombed in the beds, which have since been hardened to rock. 

After a time most of this sea bottom was raised to form dry 
land, although a part of it which extended from the Gulf of Mexico 
to southern Illinois continued to remain under water. Into this 
sea the Mississippi discharged its floods and dropped its load of 
soil, swept from the distant fields and mountains. As time went on, 
the river filled up the sea and formed flood plains, which — raised 
by a slight uplift — are among the most fertile lands of our country. 
And now the river seems bent on filling up the Gulf itself. 

Although the mountains and plateaus of our country are so far 
away from the lowlands, they have a great influence upon them. 
The Mississippi Valley, in all but its southern part, is in a belt of 
the earth where most of the winds blow from the west. Since 
these winds blow from the Pacific Ocean, they are at first damp; 
but upon reaching the western highlands, they are compelled to 
drop much of their moisture, and then they pass on into the Mis¬ 
sissippi Valley as dry winds. This causes the plains and plateaus 
of the northwest to be dry or arid. The eastern and southern 
portions of the valley have a more humid climate. The reasons for 
this are that this region is so near the Gulf and the Atlantic, and 
is separated from the latter by such low mountains, that damp 
ocean winds are able to reach it. 

The direction in which the ranges extend is a matter of great impor¬ 
tance, also. Since the mountains run north and south, the warm south 
winds find no highlands to check their northward course. Therefore, they 
are able to carry warmth and moisture a great distance, even far into the 

3—A G 



Fig. 10. 


Relief Map of North America. 


10 













Fig. 11. 

Some hummocks in a moraine formed by the Great Glacier near Ithaca, N.Y. 



Fig. 12. 


A New England lake formed by a dam of drift left by the glacier. It is very irregular 
because the water behind the dam has risen into many valleys, leaving only the hilltops 
above the surface. 



Fig. 13. 

A picture of the irregular coast of southern Alaska, near Sitka, where the sinking of the 
land has drowned the valleys, leaving only the hilltops projecting above the sea. 


11 






































12 


NORTH AMERICA 



northern part of the United States. In consequence, the Mississippi 
Valley is one of the largest and finest farming sections in the world, pro¬ 
ducing a great variety of crops. Where the summers are shortest, though 
still warm, excellent wheat is raised; farther south, corn is the principal 
crop; and in the southern part, where the summers are longest and hot¬ 
test, tobacco, cotton, sugar cane, and rice are grown. 

How different it would be if a great mountain system extended east 
and west across the continent! The warm summer winds could not, then, 
carry their warmth and moisture so far north; neither could the north 
winds, which are cool in summer and cold in winter, reach so far south. 
The north winds are very important; they moderate the heat of summer 
and bring cool weather in winter. Sometimes they do damage in winter 
by causing destructive frosts, even as far south as Florida. Then the 
orange and lemon trees suffer greatly. But they also do good, for too 
much heat takes away the vigor of the people, while cool air makes them 
more active. 

The Great Ice Age. — Long after the coal beds were formed, and 
the great highlands and valleys were built, another very important 
event happened in the preparation of this continent for our 
home. That was the formation of a great ice sheet or glacier, which 
covered a large part of northern North America. This glacier had 
much to do with making the lakes, waterfalls, and even the soil 
itself, in that section. 


Fig. 14. 

Face of Muir Glacier, Alaska. It is a great waste of ice, slowly moving down from the in¬ 
terior to the coast and ending in the sea, where icebergs break off and float away. Some 
of these may be seen in the picture. 








PHYSIOGRAPHY OF NORTH AMERICA 


13 


The Greenland glacier (Fig. 15) is made of snow which has fallen on 
the high interior in such immense quantities that the pressure upon the 
under part has changed it to ice, as pressure from your hands will change 
a snowball to ice. As the snow collects and becomes ice, it spreads out, or 
Jlows, from the interior toward the coast, much as a piece of wax may be 



, Fia. 15. 

The ice front of a Greenland glacier. 

made to flow if a weight is placed upon it. Moving toward the sea, the 
glacier drags away the soil, tears off fragments of the rock, and scours the 
rock layers, as if it were a great sand-paper. The movement is very slow, 
yet the ice is always pushing onward to the sea, where enormous icebergs 
are continually breaking off and floating away (Fig. 14). 

The glacier which formerly extended over a part of our conti¬ 
nent was likewise made of snow. It covered most of northeastern 
America, reaching as far south as New York City and the Ohio 
River, but not so far south in the Northwest (Fig. 9). Being over 
a mile deep in its thickest part, and in consequence very heavy, the 
glacier swept away the soil which had previously been made, as 
well as fragments of solid rock. 

Although the glacier was always pushing southward into our country, 
its southern end was continually melting away, owing to the warmer 
climate which it met. At times the movement was just rapid enough to 
supply the waste due to this melting, so that the edge remained in nearly 
the same position for years. All this time the sand, gravel, and rock, 






14 


NORTH AMERICA 


which had been carried along in the ice, were being piled up along the 
line where the glacier melted, forming a great mass called a moraine. 

After standing for a while and building a moraine in one place, the 
glacier front often advanced to the south, or melted away toward the north, 
building up other irregular piles of moraine hummocks. 


During the thousands of years that the glacier lasted, it carried 
millions of tons of clay and rock from one place to another and built 
many low hills. As it slipped over the surface, it ground boulders 
and pebbles together and rubbed them against the solid rock, scratch¬ 
ing and grooving it (Fig. 16). Scratches thus made may still be 
seen pointing northward, toward the place from which the glacier 
moved. This work of rasping, digging, carrying, and dumping done 
by the glacier has led to its being compared to a combined file, plow, 
and dump cart of immense size. 


hinally, after thousands of years, the great ice sheet melted away. 
No one is able to say why it came or why it went away; but that it was 
here and did the work described, all who have studied the subject are 
fully convinced. 



It was this glacier which caused the great number of lakes in the 
northeastern part of North America. Minnesota alone is said to 

have ten thousand, and in New 
England there are also thousands 
(Fig. 12 and Fig. 58, p. 64); but 
most of the states outside of the 
glacial region have extremely few. 

The manner in which these 
lakes were formed is as follows: 
The load of clay and boulders, or 
drift , as it is called, was dumped 
irregularly over the land. It 
sometimes partly filled valleys and 
built up dams, behind which ponds and lakes collected. The glacier 
also formed lake basins by digging, or plowing, directly into the 
lock. Even the Great Lakes did not exist before the glacier came ; 
their basins occupy broad river valleys which have been blocked by 
dams of drift and deepened by the plowing of the Great Ice Sheet. 

The glacier also had an important influence upon our manufactur¬ 
ing. Its load of rock fragments often filled parts of valleys so that, 
after the ice was gone, the streams were compelled to seek new 


couises. 1 hese couises often lay down steep slopes or across buried 


PHYSIOGRAPHY OF NORTH AMERICA 


15 


ledges, over which the water tumbled in a succession of rapids and 
falls. Even the great cataract of Niagara was caused in this way, 
and the same is true of many of the falls and rapids of hilly New 
England and New York. 1 he many lakes act as storehouses to 
keep the noisy falls and rapids well supplied with water. For these 
reasons New England and New Y r ork have such abundant water 
power that they early grew to be the greatest manufacturing centers 
of the Union. In sections of the country not reached by the glacier, 
rapids and falls are much less common. Did the glacier cover the 
land on which you live? 

A third important influence of the glacier was upon the soil. In 
most other parts of the country the soil has been made by the decay 
of rock (see Primary Book, p. 2) ; but in the glacial region the de¬ 
cayed rock was swept away and replaced by drift brought by the 



Fig. 17. 

Desolation Valley, California, showing effects of a glacier. 


glacier. This was made by the grinding of rocks together, much as 
flour is made by grinding wheat; in fact, glacial soil is sometimes 
called rock flour. As the glacier scraped along, it ground an enor¬ 
mous quantity of rock to bits, so that when it melted, a layer of drift 
was left, in some places reaching a depth of several hundred feet. 
Most of the clays from which bricks are made in the North were 
also brought by the ice sheet. 

With the melting of the glacier, much water was produced. This 
washed out and carried off a great deal of clay, in some places leaving 
extensive sand and gravel plains, making a soil not very fertile (Fig. 17). 

The bits of ground-up rock left by the glacier have an important effect 
upon the soil. Since these fragments, were gathered up from many places, 
and from many different kinds of rock, they sometimes cause a fertile soil 
in places where the decay of the rocks would have naturally caused a ster¬ 
ile soil. In some places the glacier failed to grind the rock into tiny bits, 
leaving pebbles and even large boulders to cover the ground. 









16 


NORTH AMERICA 


The Coast Line. —In studying about the Mississippi Valley and 
the formation of coal, we have seen that the land and sea bottom are 
not fixed, but that they often slowly rise or sink. 

Such changes in the land level are even now in progress in many 
places, though so slowly that it requires years, and even centuries, to 
notice them. For instance, along the coast of New Jersey the land 
is sinking at the rate of about two feet a century, while the land 
around Hudson Bay is rising. 

Some of the recent changes in the level of the land have had an 
important effect upon the coast line. For example, the reason we 
find so many islands and peninsulas along the northeastern coast 
(Fig. 42) is that this section has been lowered several hundred feet. 
By this means the ocean water has been allowed to enter the valleys, 
while the higher land between them extends above the water in the 
form of peninsulas, capes, and islands. 

The peninsulas of Labrador and Nova Scotia, and the hundreds 
of islands along the northeastern coast, including Newfoundland, owe 
their existence to this sinking. The irregular Pacific coast from 
Puget Sound northward (Fig. 13) was produced in the same way. 

By this sinking of the land many good harbors were made, the best 
ones being where rivers enter the sea. When the land was higher, the 
streams carved out broad valleys, into which, when the land sank, the sea 
water entered, forming bays and harbors. That is the way the Gulf of 
St. Lawrence was formed ; also New York, Delaware, Chesapeake, and 
San Francisco bays, as well as the many excellent harbors of the East. 



Fig. 18. 

A part of the raised sea bottom which forms the level plain of Florida. 















17 


PHYSIOGRAPHY OF NORTH AMERICA 


One reason for so few good harbors along the coast of the South¬ 
ern States is that the land in this section has been rising out of the 
sea. Just off the coast is a broad ocean-bottom plain where the water 
is shallow (Figs. 48, 63, and 86), while still farther out, the bottom 
slopes rapidly arid the ocean becomes very deep. 

That part of the Southern States which borders the Gulf of 
Mexico and the ocean was once a portion of this ocean-bottom plain; 
but it has been raised until it is now a low, level plain (Fig. 18). 
Since the continental shelf is so level, when a part of it was lifted 
above the water there were few places for deep inlets, bays, and 
harbors. After being raised, the coast was slightly lowered; but 
the bays thus formed are shallow and the harbors poor. 

The level plain of the Florida peninsula is also a sea bottom that 
has been lifted above the ocean. Many of the lakes and swamps 
which abound in that region are believed to be due to the shallow 
basins built by the irregular deposit of sediment on the old sea floor. 


Size, Shape, and Position. —North America is third in size among 
the six continents of the earth. By reference to the tables in the 
Appendix, find which are larger and which smaller. 

After being changed in shape during millions of years, owing to 
the rising and sinking of the land, it at present has the form of a 


triangle with the broadest portion in the north. Draw the triangle. 
Compare its shape with that of South America and Africa (Fig. 512). 
The northern part is so wide that Alaska extends to within fifty 
miles of Asia; but Labrador is over two thousand miles away from 
Europe. The distance from Alaska to Asia is so short that the early 
ancestors of our Indians and Eskimos probably first reached North 
America by crossing over from Asia. On account of the greater dis¬ 
tance across the Atlantic, Europeans for a long time did not know 
that North America existed ; but it is certain that the Norsemen 
from Norway visited our shores nearly five hundred years before 
Columbus discovered the continent. 


Those portions of North America which are nearest to Asia and 
Europe are so cold that few people live there. Farther south, where 
most of the inhabitants live, the continents are spread farther apart, 
as you will see by examining a globe. The broad Atlantic must be 
crossed in passing from Europe to America ; the difficulty of sending 
large armies with necessary supplies, this great distance across the 
sea, helps to explain why the Spanish colonies were able to win their 
independence from Spain, and the United States from England. 


18 


NORTH AMERICA 


This separation of Europe from America lias also helped in the 
development of our industries. At first, the colonists brought even 
bricks, doors, and timber from Europe ; but although the ocean is 
an excellent highway, it is expensive to send goods such long dis¬ 
tances. Therefore the settlers soon learned to raise and make most 
of the articles that they needed for food, clothing, and shelter. 

Nevertheless, the ocean is such an excellent highway that ships 
are able to sail across it in every direction and bring what we really 
need, or carry back such products as cotton and tobacco, which 
Europeans desire. Ships have also brought to us the hundreds of 
thousands of English, Irish, Germans, French, Swedes, and others 
who have settled and developed our country, and whose descendants 
are its citizens. Since Europe is our mother land , it has been, and 
is still, very important to keep in close touch with its various 
nations. This has been made possible partly by the shortness of 
the journey, now that vessels are moved by steam, and partly by the 
excellent harbors caused by the sinking of our coast. 

The Pacific Ocean is much wider than the Atlantic (see a globe), and 
therefore much more difficult to cross. Although the shores of Asia which 
face North America are densely settled, until recently we have not needed 
to have much commerce with the inhabitants of that continent because 
they were not very progressive. Now, however, the Japanese have 
adopted the methods of modern civilization, and we have come into con¬ 
trol of the Philippine Islands, so that many of our ships cross the Pacific. 

South America is also easily reached by water, and there is much trade 
with the various countries of that continent. Although South America is 
joined to North America by the narrow Isthmus of Panama, there is at 
present no railway connecting the two continents, though one is being 
planned. This isthmus is a great barrier to ocean commerce between 
eastern and western United States and between the Eastern States and 
Asia. It is very narrow, and in places only two or three hundred feet 
high ; yet, because it is there, ships must travel thousands of miles around 
South America. A railway crosses it, and a ship canal is being built across 
the isthmus. Of what advantage will this canal be to the United States ? 

Summary. — So we see that our continent, as we know it, has 
not been here from the beginning ; instead of that, millions of 
years have been required to prepare it for us. Ocean bottoms 
have been lifted into mountains, plateaus, and valleys ; coal beds, 
building stones, and valuable minerals have been formed ; a mighty 
glacier has swept over the country, grinding rock into powder 
and causing lakes, water routes, falls, and rapids, and the coast 


PHYSIOGRAPHY OF NORTH AMERICA 


19 


has been sinking here and rising there, producing fine harbors in 
some places and greatly increasing the extent of the plains in others. 
Our very position, separated by the ocean from the Old World, 
and yet enabling us to reach it when it is necessary, is an advantage. 

11m ikw Questions. (1) \\ hat was the condition of North America in early 
times.'' (2) \\ hat is coal made from ? Tell how it was formed. (3) What proofs 
are there of this formation? .(4) What is peat? (5) Name and locate our two 
chief mountain systems. (0) flow high are the plateaus at the base of each? 
(/) Explain why the plateaus are so level in spite of their height. (8) How 
have the mountains been ma le? (9) Explain what effect this has°had upon min¬ 
ing. (10) Tell about the volcanoes of the West. (11) Why is the Mississippi 
A alley called a trough ? (12) AA hat was its condition in early times? (13) How 

was the interior sea finally changed to dry land? (11) Mention some ways in 
which the mountains control the Mississippi Valley. (If)) V hat differences would 
follow if the mountain ranges extended east and west? (16) Describe the Green¬ 
land glacier. (H) How far did the great American ice sheet reach? How deep 
was it? (18) What are moraines ? (19) What do the scratches on the rocks tell 
us about the glacier? (20) Why is a glacier compared to a plow? A tile? A 
dump cart? (21) In what ways did the glacier cause lakes? (22) Falls and 
rapids? (23) Soil? (21) What effect has the glacial soil upon farming ? (25) Tell 
the whole story of the glacier. (20) Why are there so many islands, peninsulas, 
bays, and harbors in the northeast? (27) Name some of them. (28) IIow have 
some of our largest bays been made? Name them. (29) Why are there so few 
harbors on our southern coast? (30) What is the cause of the southern plains? 
(31) AV hat is the continental shelf ? (32) IIow does North America compare in 
size with the other continents? (33) IIow far is the mainland from Asia and 
Europe? (34) Show' how our position is a favorable one. (35) AVhat is the 
influence of the Isthmus of Panama ? 


Suggestions. — (1) Make a collection of different kinds of coal. (2) Examine 
some pieces of soft coal closely to see if you can discover plant remains. (3) Ob¬ 
tain some peat. (1) Learn what you can about coal mining. (5) Examine layers 
of rock in your neighborhood to see if they are horizontal or tilted. See if they 
contain fossils. ((5) Explain the meaning of shading in Fig. 10. (7) Makeamodel 
of a volcano out of sand or clay. (8) AVhat becomes of the Greenland icebergs? 
(9) Make a map showing the extent of the American glacier. (10) AVhat signs 
of the glacier, if any, can you find in your neighborhood? (11) Name several 
great cities that have grown up about our Northern harbors. Name some in the 
South. (12) Draw an outline map of the northeastern coast, and another of the 
southern coast, to see how they differ. (13) IIow many days long is the voyage, 
on a fast steamer, from New A'ork to Liverpool? IIow many miles an hour does 
the steamer go? How many miles does that make the distance? (14) How long 
is the journey from San Francisco to Manila? (15) From New A'ork to Manila by 
going eastward? Through what waters would one pass on such a voyage? 


For References 


to Books and Articles, see the 


'Teacher's Book of this 


series. 


II. PLANTS, ANIMALS, AND PEOPLES 


The climate of a region is one of the most important facts con¬ 
cerning it; for where temperature and rainfall are favorable, plants 
usually grow luxuriantly. And since plants furnish animals with 
food, where vegetation is luxuriant, animal life may be abundant. 

Since North America extends far north and south, and possesses 
lofty mountain ranges and inclosed plateaus, it has a great variety 

of climate, and, therefore, a 
great variety of plant and 
animal life. 

Plants of the North. — The 

northern part of the continent 
is bitterly cold. In that region 
there is a vast area where the 
soil is always frozen, except 
at the very surface, which 
thaws out for a few weeks in 
summer. On account of the 
frost, trees such as we are 
familiar with cannot grow. 
Their roots are unable to 
penetrate the frozen subsoil 
and to find the necessary plant 
food. There are some wil¬ 
lows, birches, and a few other plants with woody tissue, bark, 
leaves, and fruit; but instead of towering scores of feet into the air, 
they creep along the surface like vines, and rise but an inch or two 
above ground. Only by thus hugging the earth can they escape the 
fierce blasts of winter and find protection beneath the snow. 

A few grasses and small flowering plants grow rapidly, produce 
flowers, even close by the edge of snowbanks (Fig. 19), and then 
pass away, all within the few short weeks of summer. Some of 
these plants produce berries, which after ripening are preserved by 
the snows; thus, when the birds arrive in the spring, they find food 
ready for them. 



Fig. 19. 

Arctic poppies growing on the edge of a 
snowbank. 


20 








PLANTS AND ANIMALS 


21 


Animals of the North. —The summer development of insects is 
rapid, like the growth of plants. As the snow melts and the surface 
thaws, the ground becomes wet and swampy, and countless millions 
of insects appear. Among them the most common is the mosquito, 
there are few parts of the world where this insect is a worse pest 
than on the barrens of North America and the tundras of Europe 
and Asia, as these treeless, 
frozen lands are called. 

Few large land animals are 
able to thrive in so cold a 
climate and where there is 
such an absence of plant food. 

The reindeer, or caribou, the 
musk ox, polar bear, white fox, 
and Arctic hare are the largest 
four-footed land animals ( Fig. 

21) ; and the crow, sparrow, 
and ptarmigan are the most 
common land birds. 


The ptarmigan changes its 
plumage to white in winter. 

Some of the other animals of the 
Arctic, such as the fox, polar bear, and hare, are also white. This serves 
to conceal them, in that land of snow and ice, so that they may hide from 
their enemies, or steal upon their prey unawares. 

The tiny white fox feeds upon birds and other animal food; but the 
other land animals, except the polar bear, live upon plants, such as 
berries, grass, and moss. The caribou finds a kind of plant, called 
“ reindeer moss,” which grows upon rocks that rise above the deep 
winter snows. If it were not for this, the reindeer would not be 
able to live through the long winter. Often also he paws through the 
snow to find this moss. 

While some animals live upon the land in the Arctic regions, 
many more have their homes in the sea, because there, except at 
the very surface, the temperature never descends below the freezing 
point. Therefore there is plenty of animal life of all sizes, from 
the very tiniest forms to the whale, the largest animal in the 
world. During the winter the surface of the sea freezes over ; 
and then many of the sea animals migrate southward. Even the 
huge walrus (Fig. 20) moves clumsily toward a more favorable 



Fig. 20. 

Walrus on the Arctic floe ice. 







NORTH AMERICA 


99 

JmJ 

climate. The birds go farthest, especially the geese, ducks, and 
gulls, which fly to Labrador, New England, North Carolina, and 
even farther south, to spend the winter where their food is not 
covered bv ice. 

Sea birds exist by hundreds of thousands (Fig. 21), building their 
nests upon rocky cliffs in immense numbers. Indeed, they are so numer¬ 
ous that, when suddenly frightened, as hy the firing of a gun, they rise in 
a dense cloud that obscures the sun. Then, with their cries they produce 
a din that is almost deafening. In the water, seals (Figs. 190 and 
266) and walruses live, the former being so valuable for their oil and 
skins that men go on long voyages to obtain them. The oil comes from 
a layer of fat, or “blubber,” just beneath the skin, that serves to keep 
out the cold. 

The seal is the most common of the Arctic sea animals, and is the 
principal food of the Eskimo and polar bear (Fig. 266). The bear, pro¬ 
tected from observation by his white color, stealthily creeps upon his prey, 
asleep upon the ice ; or, he patiently watches until his victim swims within 
reach, and then seizes him with his powerful claws. 


Plants and Animals in Western North America.—A large area in 
western United States and Mexico has a very slight rainfall, although 
its temperature is agreeable. This arid area includes most of the 
territory having less than twenty inches of rain. 

In some places, as near the Pacific coast and upon the mountain 
tops and high plateaus, there is rain enough for forests to thrive ; but 
in most parts of the Far West the climate is so dry that there are no 
trees whatsoever. Indeed, some portions of the West are desolate 
in the extreme and inhabited by those peculiar forms of life, both 
plants and animals, characteristic of true deserts. 

One common plant is the bunch grass, so called because it grows 
in little tufts or bunches. The sage bush, a plant with a pale green 
leaf, named because of its sagelike odor, is found throughout most 
of this arid region. Other common plants are the meSquite, the 
century plant with its sharp-pointed leaves (Fig. 199, p. 2.09), and 
the cactus with its numerous thorns. In favorable spots, in the 
warm Southwest, the mesquite grows to large size. The cactus 
in the North is always low with few varieties, while in the South¬ 
west it grows in greater variety and, in some cases, even to the 
height of trees (Fig. 23). 


On account of the extreme dryness of the climate, these plants have 
a severe struggle for existence, and adopt peculiar means for protecting 



Fig. 21. 


Some of the animals of the North. 'Hie great auk had such small wings that it could 
not tly. It was killed in great numbers by sailors, and has been completely exter¬ 
minated. 








rattlesnake* 


BIG-hORN SHEEP 


JACK RABBIT 


PUMA 


ELK 


Antelo 


PRAIRIE DOG 


GRIZZLY BEAR 


jJW^M.N.Co., BuffALo 


Fig. 22. 

Some of the animals of the plateaus and mountains of the Far West. 


24 







PLANTS ANT) ANIMALS 


25 


themselves, hor example, the cactus, unlike other plants, has no leaves. 
It thus exposes little surface to the air for evaporation. In its great, 
fleshy stem it stores water to use through the long, dry seasons, while 
spines protect it from animals in search of 
food. Some of these plants, as mesquite, 
are so bitter that they are not eaten by 
animals. The mesquite also protects itself 
by spines, and in addition has such large 
roots that the part of the plant under 
ground is greater than that above. The 
roots of this plant are an important source 
of wood for fuel. 

Animals eat few of the arid land 
plants except the grasses, which were 
once the food of the buffalo, or bison 
(Fig. 26), and are now the support of 
cattle and sheep (Figs. 114 and 185). 

The bison, whose home was on the 
prairies and the arid plains east of the 
Rocky Mountains, is now gone, and 
few large animals are left in its place. 

The graceful antelope and the cowardly 
prairie wolf, or coyote , and the rabbits 
upon which the latter feeds, are the 
most abundant (Fig. 22). Among the 
rabbits is the long-legged jack rabbit, which leaps across the plains 
with astonishing speed, with its huge ears thrown back so far that 
they do not retard its progress. 

The fierce puma, or mountain lion, still lives among the mountains, 
and also the ugly cinnamon and grizzly bears (Fig. 22), though the 
latter are now rare and difficult to find. Deer and elk inhabit the 
forest-covered mountains of southern Canada and northwestern 
United States ; and among the higher peaks a few mountain goats 
and sheep still live on the more inaccessible rocky crags (Fig. 22). 
The sheep have huge horns much prized by hunters. 

Plants and Animals of the Tropical Zone.—Contrast the life in 
the frozen North and the arid West with that in Central America 
and southern Mexico. In these regions, which are situated in the 
torrid zone, the temperature is always warm; and the rainfall, espe¬ 
cially on the eastern coast, is so heavy that all the conditions are 
favorable for dense vegetation. 



4—a a 










26 


NORTH AMERICA 


Indeed, the tangle of growth in the forests is so great that it is practi¬ 
cally impossible to pass through it without hewing one’s way. Besides 
trees and underbrush, there are quantities of ferns, vines, and flowers, 
many of which hang from the trees with their roots in the air instead of in 
the ground. They are able to live in this way on account of the damp air. 
Among the trees are the valuable rosewood, mahogany, ebony, and rubber 
tree; and among the flowers are the beautiful orchids. On account of the 
continual warmth and moisture, many plants, like the banana for instance, 
bear fruit throughout the year. 

In the midst of such luxuriant vegetation, animal life is won¬ 
derfully varied and abundant. There are the tapir, monkey, and 
jaguar (Fig. 24); brilliantly colored birds, such as parrots, paroquets, 
and humming birds; and millions of insects. Scorpions and centi- 
peds abound, and ants exist in countless numbers, some in the ground, 
others in decayed vegetation. Serpents, some of them poisonous, are 
common in the forests; and in the rivers are fish and alligators, the 
latter being found as far-north as Florida and Louisiana. 

Plants and Animals in the Temperate Part of North America.— 
Between the frigid and torrid zones, and both east and west of the 
arid region, is an area of moderate rainfall and temperature where 
the vegetation and animals differ from those of the other sections. 
Beginning in the warm south and passing northward, we find that 
both animals and plants grow less numerous and less varied until, 
near the Arctic zone, they become scarce and few in kind. The 
pines and oaks of the United States give place to the spruce, balsam 
fir, and maple in Canada; then these gradually become stunted and 
disappear, and beyond this the barrens are reached (p. 21). 

The animals that once inhabited the broad temperate zone have 
been mostly destroyed, although some still live in the forest and 
mountain region. They are carefully protected by state laws, which 
prohibit shooting except at certain seasons, and then only in small 
numbers. When America was first visited by Europeans, these 
woods abounded in deer, moose, caribou, wolves, and foxes (Fig. 25). 
Beavers built dams across the streams, the mink and otter fished in 
the waters, and bears roamed at will. Among the birds, the ea«de 
was very common, and wild pigeons and turkeys were so abundant 
that they were one of the principal foods of the early settlers. 

Some believe that at one time most of the eastern United States was 
wooded, including the fertile prairies of the Mississippi Valley, from which 
the tiees weie burned by flies set by the Indians. Grass then sprang up 



HUMMING BIRD 


^TURfit 


PARROT 


TAPIR 


TARANTULA 


JAGUAR 


MONKEY 


ANACONDA 


ALLIGATQR 


"me M.N.tXBorFALo. 


Fig. 24. 

A few of the animals of the tropical forests. 








ERMINE 


Fig. 25. 


Some of the animals of northeastern United States and southeastern Canada. 


OTTER 




M 

St'; MINK 


musk ox 


FOX 


LYNX 




■ 


WOLF , 

Si 


DEER 


S ... v _fAV 




* i 

MOOSE 


HEDGEHOG 


28 











PLANTS ANIJ ANIMALS 


29 


in place of the trees, and the prairies became the grazing place for immense 
herds of bison or buffalo (Fig. 26). The bison, however, like the other animals 
mentioned, have been mostly destroyed; thousands upon thousands were 
slaughtered for their hides and tongues only, and their bones left to whiten 
upon the plains. There are now no wild bison in the United States, except a 
few which are protected by the government in the Yellowstone National Park. 
In this Park, where hunting is prohibited, are numbers of deer (Fig. 25) and 
elk (Fig. 22). There are also black, cinnamon, and grizzly bears, which are 
so tame that they come down to the hotels at night to feed upon the garbage. 



Fio. 2(>. 

One of the immense herds of bison that formerly roamed over the treeless plains. 

A slow change lias been in progress in this temperate section, which, 
when first discovered, was clothed in forests and luxuriant prairie 
grass, and inhabited by Indians and wild beasts. The white man has 
come into possession of the land and has cleared the forests and plowed 
the prairies, so that, where trees stood and Indians hunted the bison 
and other game, there are now fertile farms and thriving cities. 

Our crops and domesticated animals well illustrate how man has 
learned to make use of nature for his needs. Every one of our cultivated 
plants was once a wild plant; and each of our domesticated animals has 
been tamed from the wild state. Most of these have come from Europe and 
Asia; but America has added some to the list. Among plants in common 
use, the Indian corn or maize, the tobacco, tomato, pumpkin, and potato were 
unknown to the Old World until America was discovered. The same is 
true of the turkey; and perhaps, in a hundred years or so, the bison may 
be included among the domesticated animals, for on the cattle ranches of 
the West a few small herds are being carefully reared. 









30 


NORTH AMERICA 


Peoples 


Eskimos. —America was inhabited for thousands of years before 
it was discovered by white men. To the natives in the southern 
part Columbus gave the name Indians , supposing he had reached 
India. Those in the Far North (Fig. F), who subsist on meat, 
are called Eskimos, a word meaning flesh-eaters. 

To-day, in some places, the Eskimos live in very nearly the same 
condition as formerly, their climate being so severe that white men 



Fig. 27. 

Eskimo igloos in Baffin Land. 


have not settled among them nor interfered with their customs. 
They still roam about in summer, living in skin tents, or tuples, and 
m the winter erecting snow and ice huts, or igloos (Fig. 27). Their 
stiuggle is a hard one, for they not only have to battle against cold, 
but also to obtain their food amid great difficulties. In this they are 
aided by their dogs, doubtless domesticated wolves, which, like their 
masters, aie able to subsist upon a meat diet and withstand the 
severe Arctic cold. Every Eskimo man has his team of dogs to 
draw his sledge over the frozen sea. 

Indians. — Indians were originally scattered over most of the 
country south of the Arctic Circle. This is indicated by the places 


H 












PEOPLES 


31 


that bear Indian names, as Narragansett, Erie, Niagara, Huron, 
Ottawa, Illinois, Dakota, Pueblo, and Sioux City. Some of the 
tribes were true savayes (l"ig. D) ; others, not so savage, may be 
classed as barbarians. I hey raised u Indian corn " and tobacco, made 
pottery, used tools and weapons made of stone, and lived in villages. 

In southwestern United States, Mexico, and Central America the 
aborigines were more civilized. Much of that region is arid ; but the 
Indians raised crops by irrigation, and built fortresses of stone and sun- 
dried brick (b ig. ^8). 1 hese were erected partly as homes for protec¬ 

tion from surrounding savages, and partly as storehouses for grain. 


T 



Fig. 28. 

The pueblo of Taos in New Mexico. Notice the ladders leading to the roofs upon which are 

the house entrances. 


The most noted among these Indians were the Aztecs , who occu¬ 
pied the city of Mexico and some of the neighboring country. They 
had government and religion much better developed than the bar¬ 
barous and savage tribes. They mined gold and silver and manu¬ 
factured the metals into various articles; they wove blankets, and 
ornamented their pottery and their buildings in an artistic manner. 
Living the quiet life of the farmer, the Aztecs preferred peace to 
war, and a settled home to the nomadic life of the hunter. 

While some tribes thus approached a state of civilization, the Indians, 
as a race, never became a powerful people. For this there are several 












32 


NORTH AMERICA 


reasons. Instead of forming one great confederacy and living at peace 
with one another, they were divided into many tribes. Each tribe had a 
certain area over which it could roam and hunt; but if it encroached upon 
its neighbors, war followed. Under these circumstances it was difficult 

for one tribe to advance to a much higher state of civilization than the 
others. 

The level nature of the country rendered this difficulty all the greater, 
ad the surface of North America been very mountainous, some tribes 

might have been so protected by sur¬ 
rounding mountain walls as to dare to 
devote themselves to other work than 
war. Then they might gradually have 
collected wealth and developed impor¬ 
tant industries; but the vast plains of 
the Mississippi Valley, and the exten¬ 
sive plains and low mountains of the 
East, allowed little protection. If any 
one tribe had built good homes on these 
plains, and collected treasures within 
them, the neighboring Indians would 
have felt that a special invitation had 
been extended to attack them. The 
Aztecs were continually in danger from 
this cause. However, the fact that they 
were partly protected by mountains and 
deserts, was one of the reasons why 
they were more civilized than the 
Indians of the northeast. 

Another serious obstacle to fhp nrl 
vancement of the Indians was the faet tw * to the ad- 

anhrmk w 11Cfl • ,7 ,J act that the J possessed no domestic 

animals for use m agriculture. The horse, cow, sheep, goat, and hog; 

were unknown to them; and, without these, farm U-k becomes the worst 
udgety, because every product must be raised by hand. 

Again although there was much game, the supply was never sufficient 
. uppoi t a dense population for a long period. Even the scattered Indian 
p pu ation was obliged to wander about in search of it. This prevented 
lem from living quietly and finding time for improvement. All these 
facts worked against the advancement of the Indians; but they proved of 
gieat advantage to the whites, making it far easier than it would other- 
wise have been for them to obtain possession of America. 

The Spaniards. - The astonishment of Europe was great when 

it was proved that there were vast territories on this fide of the 

At antic. America was pictured as containing all sorts of treasures 

and European nations vied with one another in fitting out expedi- 
tions to take possession of them. ® P 



Fig. 29. 

Indian woman carrying her baby, or 
papoose. 








PEOPLES 


33 


1 lie Spaniards naturally led, for they were then one of the most 
powerful nations of Europe and had sent out Columbus as their repre¬ 
sentative. Leaving Palos in Spain on his first voyage, he was carried 
southwestward by the winds to one of the West Indies, a point much 
farther south than Spain itself. Find on a globe the point on our 
coast that is about as far north as Madrid. 

The section reached by the Spaniards had a climate similar to that 
of their own country, and they easily made themselves at home there 
and soon came into possession of most of South America, Central 
America, Mexico, and southwestern United States. They had one 
advantage over the English and French who settled farther north : 
the portion of the continent that they discovered is so narrow that 
they easily crossed it, and thus enjoyed the privilege of exploring the 
1 acific coast also. It was because of this fact that the Spanish race 
settled the western coast as far north as San Francisco. 

After robbing the Aztecs of immense quantities of gold and silver, the 
Spanish converted the natives to Christianity, and introduced many Span¬ 
ish laws and customs. They cruelly mistreated the natives, killing many 
and enslaving others, and forcing them to work in the mines and fields. 
While the invaders were able to conquer the semi-civilized Aztecs and the 
barbarians of the islands, they made very little progress in subduing the 
more savage tribes. To this day, in fact, there are tribes of Indians in 
Mexico and Central America that have never been conquered. 

The French.—The French began their settlements in a very dif¬ 
ferent quarter, being first attracted to our coast by the excellent fish¬ 
ing on the Newfoundland banks. Soon the fur trade with the Indians 
proved profitable, and the French took possession of Nova Scotia and 
the region along the St. Lawrence River and the Great Lakes. 

The value of the fur trade, and a desire to convert the Indians 
to Christianity, led the French far into Wisconsin and to the head 
waters of the Mississippi River. Making their way southward to the 
mouth of that river, they took possession of the whole Mississippi 
Valley (Fig. 30), and called it Louisiana in honor of their great 
king, Louis XIV. In order to hold this vast territory, they estab¬ 
lished a chain of trading posts and forts from the Gulf of Mexico to 
the Gulf of St. Lawrence. One of the most important of these forts 
stood where Pittsburg now stands. 

What special advantage had the French for reaching so much of the 
interior of the continent? Why should they not have proceeded westward 


34 


NORTH AMERICA 


to the Pacific ? Many places in the St. Lawrence and Mississippi valleys 
still preserve French names, as Lake Champlain, Marquette in Michigan, 
La Salle in Illinois, St. Louis, and New Orleans. 


The English. —The Spanish and French left only a narrow strip 
along the Atlantic coast for other nations. Among those who 
attempted settlements were the Dutch in New York and the Swedes 
in Delaware. But the English, settling at various points along the 
coast, soon obtained the lead. They captured New York City (then 
called New Amsterdam) from the Dutch, and extended their settle¬ 
ments along most of the coast from Florida to Nova Scotia. 

In several respects the portion that fell to the English seemed 
much less desirable than that held by the Spanish and French; yet 
the English-speaking race has managed, not only to retain this, but 
to add to it most of the possessions of the other two. At the pres¬ 
ent time, the control of the entire continent, with the exception of 
Mexico, Central America, and a few small islands, is in the hands 
of either the United States or Great Britain. 



There are, of course, good reasons for this strange result. No doubt 
original differences between these three races is one cause; but there are 
others also. In the case of the Spanish, the climate has been one factor; 

for in a large part of their 
territory the weather is too 
warm to produce energetic 
people. In very cold coun¬ 
tries, as in the land of the 
Eskimos, so much labor is 
required in merely obtaining 
food and shelter, that little 
time and strength are left for 
general improvement. The 
struggle is too severe to 
allow progress. 

In warm countries, on the 
other hand, the same effect 
is produced, but in the op- 

Map showing the claims of France, England, and Spain 1u ,i n 

upon the territory of central North America in 1760. P° Slte ^ S ° httle eneI SJ 

is required to find sufficient 

food that the people do not need to exert themselves, and hence do not. 
By taking a few steps, the Central American can find bananas and other 
nourishing food at almost any season of the year; why then should he 
work? The people, therefore, lose the inclination to bestir themselves, 
or, in other words, become too lazy to improve their condition. 


Fig. 30. 























PEOPLES 


35 


Another reason why the Spaniards have not developed is found in 
their relation to the Indians. Although robbing and enslaving them, they 
t le same tune married them freely, so that, in time, half-breeds have 
come to make up more than half the population. These half-breeds 

! ar inferior . to the Spaniards themselves, and 
the Aztecs' ^ tiat tliey stl11 follo " r many of the customs of 

The French likewise intermarried with the Indians and adopted some 

° f their customs; Their climate was, on the whole, more favorable than 
that of the Spanish. 

As for the English, the temperate climate of their section is the best 
in the world for the development of energy. The warm summers allowed 





Fig. 31. 

A primitive Mexican cart with wooden wheels. 

abundant harvests; but the long, cold winters forced the settlers to ex¬ 
ert themselves to store supplies for the cold season. Since it required 
only a reasonable amount of labor to obtain the necessities of life, time 
and energy were still left for improvement. 

In their treatment of the Indians, the English and French were less 
cruel than the Spaniards; but unlike both French and Spanish, the Eng- 
glish would not intermarry with savages. Consequently, in the wars with 
the French, the English were not hampered by great numbers of half- 
civilized persons, and could act with more intelligence, speed, and force. 
Their relation to the Indians, however, placed them at a disadvantage in 
one respect; for, during the fights with the French, a majority of the 
Indians were enemies of the English. 

The fact that the English were hemmed in by forest-covered moun¬ 
tains on the west, and by the French and Spanish on the north and south, 






















36 


NORTH AMERICA 


also proved an advantage; for on that account they were kept close 
together, and were easily able to combine their forces when wars arose. 

These are some of the reasons why the English-speaking race has won 
its way on the continent against both Spanish and French. Spain has 
steadily lost ground, having given up Porto Rico to the United States and 
acknowledged the independence of Cuba; and France lias had no claim 
upon the continent since 1803. The Spanish race still occupies Mexico 
and Central America, while French is even now spoken by many people in 
New Orleans, Quebec, and Montreal. 

Westward Migration. — After the Revolutionary War, by which 
the Thirteen Colonies gained their independence from Great Britain, 
an active westward movement began. For a long time the Appala¬ 
chian Mountains had stemmed the tide of migration (Fig. 32). But 
at last numbers of pioneers found their way, along the river valleys, 
to the other side of these mountains. There they discovered fertile 
plains, free from rocks and woods, and ready for the plow ; and 

their enthusiastic reports quickly 
drew hundreds of thousands after 
them. 

The westward advance pushed 
the frontier line on and on until the 
semi-arid plains of the West were 
reached. Then, in 1848, the discov¬ 
ery of gold in California produced a 
wave of excitement that carried hosts 
of adventurers across the Rockies to 
the Pacific coast. After this the 
western part of the United States was 
rapidly explored and settled. 

Slavery. — While the Indians of 
the East were being killed in war and 
driven westward, negroes were being 
brought from Africa. There are now 
fully eight million blacks in the 
United States, which is nearly one 
ninth of our entire population, and 
thirty times the number of Indians. 

Slavery was first introduced into America by the Spaniards, who 
made slaves of the Indians. The first negro slaves in the British 
colonies were brought to Virginia in 1619. Later they were brought 
to Massachusetts, New Jersey, and the other northern colonies. The 



rSNSN Fairly well settled. 

V/A'/O Most densely settled portion. More than 90 people, 
living on every square mile. 

Fig. 32. 

Map to show, the settled part of the 
United States in 1790. Notice the 
cities named ; each of these had over 
5000 inhabitants. Which are now 
among the great cities of the country ? 
What about Chicago ? 










PEOPLES 


37 


demand for cheap labor was partly supplied by criminals sent over 
from England, and by other immigrants who gave their services for 
a few years in payment for their passage across the sea. Many of 

these were men and women of good character, who became excellent 
citizens of a new country. 

Negro slaves were brought to all the colonies, but they soon 
proved a much more profitable investment in the South than in the 
North. In New England the farms were small, the products were 
numerous, and their cultivation required considerable skill. More¬ 
over, the climate was severe for natives of tropical Africa. On the 
other hand, the Southern climate was well suited to them ; and the 
simple routine work upon the great tobacco, cotton, sugar, and rice 
plantations was such as they could easily perform. Accordingly, 
the number of negroes increased in the South, while slavery gradually 
disappeared from the North. 

Immigrants to America. — Europe and Asia have poured forth 
a stream of immigrants into this country. Our increase in popula¬ 
tion, from a little over three millions at the close of the Revolution¬ 
ary War to over eighty-four millions at present, has been largely 
due to this steady stream from abroad. Nearly every foreign nation 
is represented, and upon the streets of our larger cities may be heard 
the languages of most of the civilized peoples of the globe. 

The greater part of our immigrants have come from northern 
Europe, especially from the British Isles, Germany, and the Scandi¬ 
navian peninsula (see Appendix, p. x) ; and great numbers of them 
have settled in the cities. More recently a flood of immigration 
from southern Europe has brought us less educated and less desirable 
people. At one time many Chinese threatened to come, and laws 
preventing their coming had to be passed. We have laws, also, 
excluding paupers, criminals, and laborers who are brought here by 
contract. To others the country is free. 

It has been our mission to welcome these strangers, and, in spite 
of. their varying ideas, customs, and languages, to teach them the 
principles of a republican form of government, to educate them, and 
welding them into an harmonious body, to make them good citizens 
and true Americans. It is not strange if some mistakes have been 
made in the process. It is a task that no other nation has ever per¬ 
formed on so grand a scale. The fact that so few of the many 
foreigners who settle among us desire to return to their native lands 
is proof that they have not been disappointed in their expectations. 


38 


NORTH AMERICA 



Review Questions. — (1) Of what importance is climate ? (2) Why are there 
no large trees in the cold North? (3) Describe the vegetation there. (4) Tell 
about the animals that live on the land there. (5) Why are there more animals 
in the sea? (6) What kinds live there? (7) How do arid land plants protect 
themselves? (8) Tell what you can about the animals living in the arid lands. 
(9) Why should there be more life in the tropical zone? (10) Name some of 
the animals living there. (11) What can you say of the plants of the moist tem¬ 
perate zone? (12) Of the animals? (13) Of the bison? (14) What cultivated 
plants and domesticated animals has North America supplied? 

(15) Describe the difficulties that the Eskimos encounter. (16) Give some 
examples of Indian names. (17) Describe the life of the different kinds of 
Indians. (18) What causes prevented the Indians from becoming more civilized? 
(19) Give a reason why the Aztecs were able to advance. (20) What advantage 
did their location in southern North America give the Spaniards? (21) How did 
the Spaniards treat the Indians? (22) What attracted the French to America? 
Where did they settle ? (23) What other nations settled in the East? (24) What 
has been the fate of the Spaniards and French in America ? (25) Why have the 

English-speaking people come into possession of the greater part of the continent? 
(26) What interfered with the westward migration of the English ? (27) How 

was this migration finally brought about? (28) Tell about the beginnings of 
slavery in America. (29) Why was it more successful in the South than in the 
North ? (30) What is our mission toward our immigrants? 

For References, see Teacher's Boole. 


Fig. F. 

Eskimos of Alaska. Notice their clothing, and implements for catching fish. 





















III. LATITUDE,* LONGITUDE, AND. STANDARD TIME 


Latitude and Longitude 

Need of a Means for locating Places. — In your study of geography 
you have doubtless noticed that it has frequently been necessary to 
refer to lines upon the earth, such as the Tropic of Cancer, the Equa¬ 
tor, the Arctic Circle, etc., in order to locate certain places and the 
boundaries of the zones. But these lines are far apart, and there are 
many places between them to which reference must often be made. 
For instance, suppose we wished to state on what part of the earth 
London is situated; how could it be done ? Of course, by taking a 
long time, it would be possible to describe just where this city is; 
but cannot some more convenient way be devised ? 

The difficulty is much the same as that which arises in a large 
city, where there are thousands of houses. 

No one person knows who lives in most 
of them, and if a stranger were looking 
for a friend, he might have much trouble 
in finding him. 

The Streets of a City. — In this case 
the problem may be solved in a simple 
manner. A street running east and 
west may be selected to divide the city 
into two parts (Fig. 33). Any place 
north of this street is spoken of as being 
on the north side, and south of it as 
being on the south side. The streets to Map of a part of a city, to iiius- 
the north and south are numbered from streets the need ° f nanung 
this, as North 1st, North 2d, North 3d; 

and South 1st, South 2d, South 3d, and so on. Then if a man says 
that ho lives on North 4th Street, one knows immediately that he 
lives on the north side, and that his house is on the fourth street 
from this central one. 

But a city also extends a long distance east and west, and we 
need to know on what part of 4th Street this house is to be found. 

39 


-J 1 —'Uv i-^LJLjl 

:□□□□□□[ 

inaoqnnL 

.Eoaon 

ZSr « &ASM/MCTON AVf 

□□CpoSSt 

:□□□□□□[ 
—ipU— 1 


CAST. 


nnr-ir 

SOUTH 


Fig. 33. 








40 


NORTH AMERICA 


1 o answer that question, another street running north and south, and 
crossing the east and west ones, may be selected to divide the city 
into east and west parts. I he streets on the two sides are numbered 
from this one, as East 1st, East 2d, West 1st, West 2d, etc. (Fig. 33). 

Then if a man lives on the corner of North 4th and East 3d 
stieets, one knows not only that his home is north of a certain line, 
but east of another line. If the blocks, or the space between any 
two streets, are always the same, it will also be easy to tell the dis¬ 
tance from each of the central streets to the house. 

This plan is not necessary in small towns and villages, because the 
people there know one another, and are able to direct strangers easily. 
Few, if any, cities follow exactly the scheme here given; but many have a 
system of naming or numbering streets somewhat similar to this. 

If you live in a large city, perhaps you can tell just how your streets 
are named or numbered. 


Distance North and South of the Equator {Latitude'). — Places 
upon a globe are located in much the same manner. For example, 
the equator, which extends around the earth midway between the 
poles, corresponds to the dividing street running east and west. 
The distance between the equator and the poles, on either side, is 
divided into ninety parts (Fig. 34), corresponding, we might say, to 
the blocks in a city. These, however, are each about sixty-nine 
miles wide and are called degrees , marked with the sign °. 

In making maps people think of a line, or a circle, extending 
around the earth sixty-nine miles north of the equator, and called a 
circle of latitude. Any point upon it is one degree (1°) north of the 
equator, or 1° North Latitude (abbreviated to N. Lat.). Similar 
lines are imagined 2°, 3°, and so on up to 90°, or to the north pole. 

Since all points on any one of these circles are the same distance 

rom the equatoiy and from the other circles of latitude, the lines are 

'parallel; and on that account they are called parallels of latitude 
See a globe. 

The same plan is followed on the south side, places in that hemi¬ 
sphere being in South Latitude (S. Lat.). 

If one finds that a certain place is on the 8th, or the 50th, or some 
other parallel north of the equator, he knows how far it is north of 
the equator. San Francisco is close to the 38th parallel, Chicago close 
to the 42d, and St. Paul on the 45th (Figs. 104 and 131). know¬ 
ing this, it is easy to see that Chicago is 4°, or about two hun¬ 
dred and seventy-six miles, farther north than San Francisco, while 


LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE 


41 


V- 

jtorth *>*?S#*. gk ^ 

0 ‘ N Lot. 



• M Lot 

1Sl\°N Laf 
-XQ°P Lat. 


3 0° L at 


O* Lat. 


2-y20 a S Lot 
2iA°SL0t. 


40 ° S.Lat. 


_ Laf. 

South Pol* j, Qo 80° i Lot 


' 1;0 ° 5 Lat 




Fig. 34. 

The globe, showing the two hemispheres 
and some of the circles of latitude. 


St. 1 aul is 3 , or over two hundred miles, farther north than 
Chicago. 

h rom this it is evident that we can easily find the latitude of a 
given place by the help of these 
parallels, for latitude is the distance 
north or south of the equator. 

Of course there are no marks upon 
the earth to show where these lines run, 
but they are of great use on maps, 
because they help us to locate places. 

Small maps and globes cannot well 
show the entire ninety parallels on each 
side of the equator, so that usually only 
every fifth or tenth one is drawn. Ex¬ 
amine some maps (such as Figs. 42 and 
104), to see which ones are given. Near 
what parallel do you live? 

East and West Distances on the 

Earth ( Longitude ! ). — Hut how 
about distance east and west? It is about twenty-five thousand 
miles around the earth at the equator, and some means must be 
found for telling on the map how far places are from each other in 
these directions. 

Imaginary lines are used for this purpose, as before; but this 
time they extend north and south from pole to pole (Fig. 35), and 
are called meridians , or lines of longitude. In the case of the city it 
makes little difference what north and south street is chosen from 
which to number the others. It is only necessary that a certain 
one be agreed upon. 

It is the same with these meridians. No one is especially im¬ 
portant, as the equator is, and consequently different nations have 
selected different lines to start from. In France the meridian 
extending through Paris is chosen, in England that through Green¬ 
wich near London, and in America the one passing through Wash¬ 
ington is sometimes used. Hut it is important that all people agree 
on some one, so that all maps may be made alike. On that account 
many countries start their numbering with the meridian which passes 
through Greenwich. The maps in this book follow that plan. 

1 The ancients thought that the world extended farther in an east and west than in 
a north and south direction. Therefore they called the east and west, or long direction, 
longitude ; the north and south direction, latitude. 

5—A G 





42 


NORTH AMERICA 


In Greenwich is a building, called an observatory, in which there is a 
telescope for the study of the sun, moon, and stars. As these heavenly 



Fig. 35. 

The earth, cut in halves along the Green¬ 
wich meridian, showing some of the 
meridians. The meridian 20° is usually 
considered the dividing line between 
the eastern and western hemispheres. 


bodies are of great help in finding 
the latitude and longitude of places, 
Greenwich seemed to the English a 
fitting place from which to begin 
numbering their meridians. 

Commencing with this meridian 
as 0° longitude, people measure off 
degrees both east and west of it, 
and think of lines as extending 
north and south toward the poles, 
as they do of circles of latitude 
running parallel to the equator. 
Thus there is a meridian 1° west, 
another 2°, a third 3°, etc. Going 
eastward, they number 1°, 2°, 3° in 
the same way. 


Any place on the 3d meridian west of Greenwich is said to be in 
3° West Longitude (W . Long.); if on the 60th meridian, 60° \V. Long. 
Anyplace on the 20th meridian east oi Greenwich is in 20° East 


Longitude (E. Long.). New York 
is 74° W. Long., while San Fran¬ 
cisco is about 123° W. Lons'. 

o 

The 180th meridian is a continua¬ 
tion, on the other side of the earth, 
of the Greenwich or zero meridian 
(Fig. 36), and the two together make 
a complete circle. Hence we may 
speak of circles of longitude as well as 
circles of latitude. Why must the 
meridian marked 180° E. Long, be the 
same as the one marked 180° W. 
Long. ? Which meridian passes near 
New York? Denver? 

If a large map is made of a small 
part of the earth, the circles of lati¬ 
tude and longitude are too far apart 
to be of much use. Therefore, it is 
customary to divide each degree into 
sixty parts called minutes , just as each 
Each minute of latitude and longitude 



Fig. 36. 


A view looking down on the north pole, 
to show how the meridians come to a 
point at the north pole. Notice that if 
theO° meridian were continued it would 
unite with the meridian 180°. 

hour is divided into sixty parts, 
is divided into sixty parts called 




















LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE 


43 


seconds, as each minute of time is divided into sixty seconds. The sign 
for a degree is °; for a minute for a second Thus GO degrees, 40 
minutes, and 20 seconds north latitude is marked 60° 40' 20" N. Lat. 
Examine some wall-map of a small section to find these signs. 

Knowing’ the latitude and longitude of any place, it can, by the 
aid of a map, be as easily located as a house in a great city. For 
instance, Denver is about 40° N. Lat. and 105° W. Long. It is 
therefore far to the north and west of New Orleans, which is about 
a0° N. Lat. and 90° W. Long. 

hind the latitude and longitude of some of the large cities on the 
map (Fig. 44). Notice also that only every fifth meridian is marked. 
Compare this with the map of New England (Fig. 47). Since this map 
represents a smaller section, more meridians can be drawn upon it. 

The circles of latitude are parallel to the equator and to each other, 
as you can prove by measuring the distance between them on a globe. 
But the meridians cannot be parallel on a globe, since they start from the 
poles and spread farther and farther apart until the equator is reached. 
Examine some of the maps in this book to see that the meridians are not 
parallel, while the lines of latitude are. 

You can see how this is by taking the peeling from an orange (Fig. 37). 
The edges of each of the quarters spread far apart in the middle, or equa¬ 
tor, but come together at the ends, or 
poles, of the orange. 

A degree of longitude is a little 
over sixty-nine miles at the equator; 
but it decreases more and more as the 
poles are approached, until at the 
poles it is nothing, because all the 
meridians meet there at one point. 

* Examine Figure 36 or, better still, a 
globe, to see that this must be true. 

How a degree of latitude happens 
to be slightly more than 69 miles is 
easily understood. The length of a 
circle extending around the earth 
through the poles is about 25,000 
miles; and this distance is thought 
of as being divided into 360 equal 
parts or degrees, that being a number that is exactly divisible by 2, 3,4, 5, 
6, 8, 9, and still other numbers. Divide 25,000 by 360. 

Keeping in mind the number 360, you can understand why the dis¬ 
tance from the equator to either pole is 90°, for that is one fourth of the 
entire distance. How many miles in 90°? 

You can now find the width of the five zones (Fig. 244). The tropi- 



Fig. 37. 


An orange with a part of the peeling re¬ 
moved to show how the lines converge 
toward the poles, as the meridians con¬ 
verge on the globe. 











44 


NORTH AMERICA 


cal zone is bounded on the north by the Tropic of Cancer and on the 
south by the Tropic of Capricorn, each of which is 23|° from the equator. 
The Arctic and Antarctic circles are likewise 23-|° from the poles. 
Give the width of each of the zones in degrees of latitude. In miles. 
What is the greatest width of the United States in degrees of latitude? 
In miles ? How far is the southern extremity of Florida from the Tropic 
of Cancer ? How far is New Orleans from that tropic ? 


Standard Time 

If you were to travel from New York to San Francisco, yon would 
find on arriving that your watch was three hours too fast. The reason 
is that the rotation of the earth, from west to east, causes the sun’s 



Fig. 38. 

To show the standard time belts of the United States. 


rays to fall upon the Atlantic coast more than three hours sooner 
than upon the Pacific, so that when it is noon in New York, it is 
about nine o’clock in the morning at San Francisco. 


Measuring from east to west, every place has a different time by 
the sun, and some years ago each city had its own sun or solar time. 
But when railways were built, connecting many places, these differ¬ 
ences became a source of constant annoyance to the traveler, for 
his watch showed the time of only one place. 










STANDARD TIME 


45 


In order to avoid this trouble our continent has been divided 
into belts, in each of which the railways, and most of the towns, 
have the same time. Since this time is the standard for all , these 
belts are called the Standard Time Belts. The Colonial Belt includes 
the provinces of Eastern Canada; that next west of it, which includes 
New England, New York, and some of the other Eastern States, is 
called the Eastern Time Belt. What are the others? (Fig. 38.) 


In traveling across the country from New York to San Francisco, 
one starts with his watch set at the standard time for the Eastern 
lime Belt. After a while he comes to a place where the time 
changes one full hour; then he has Central Time. Going still 
farther west to the Mountain Belt, the watch is again set back 
one full hour ; what is done when the Pacific Belt is reached ? 
In this way, only a few changes of the watch have to be made. 

Our study of longitude helps us to understand what determines 
the places for changing this time. When it is noon at a certain point 
on a meridian, it is noon at every other point on that meridian. 1 

The earth makes one complete rotation every 24 hours, so that 
the sun reaches each of the 360 meridians in the course of the day 
of 24 hours. Dividing 360 by 24 gi\ : es 15; that is the number of 
meridians that the sun passes over in a single hour. Therefore, if 
in one place, as at Philadelphia, on the 75th meridian, it is noon, it 
will be noon one hour later at all points just 15° west of this, or on 
the 90tli meridian. 

This explains what has determined the boundary lines of the 
time belts. The time selected for the Eastern Belt is that of the 
75th meridian; for the Central Belt, that of the 90th meridian, 
which is just one hour later. What meridian is selected for the 
Mountain Belt? (Fig. 38.) For the Pacific Belt? Each of these 
meridians runs through the middle of the belt whose time it fixes, 
so that the eastern boundary of the Central Time Belt is halfway 
between the 75th and 90th meridians, that is West Longitude 82 10 ; 
and the western boundary is halfway between the 90th and 105th 
meridians, or 97]° West Longitude. 


In reality the railways do not change their time exactly according to 
these boundaries, for oftentimes the meridians extend through very unim- 

1 It is understood, of course, that this does not apply to the frigid zone, where the 
sun does not rise at all during a part of the year, and where it does not set during 
another part of the year. 


46 


NORTH AMERICA 


portant points, or even cross the railways far out in open country. Instead 
of following the exact boundaries, they select well-known places, like 
Buffalo, Pittsburg, and Atlanta, at which cities the change is made from 
Eastern to Central time. Therefore, the boundaries which represent the 
places where the railways actually change their time are somewhat irregu¬ 
lar, and not always on the proper meridian (Fig. 38). 

Y ou see that the object of these Time Belts is to save annoyance, 
and that for most places the standard time is incorrect time. 

In order that our system may accord with that of other parts of 
the world, the time of the Greenwich meridian is taken as a basis. 
I bus the whole world may be divided into standard time belts, with 
a change of an hour at every fifteenth meridian. 


Questions. (1) How may an east and west street be used in a city to locate 
houses? (2) How may a north and south street be so used ? (3) Make a plan of 

a city showing two central streets and others numbered from them. (4) What 
conesponds to the central east and west street in locating places upon the globe ? 
(5) Into how many parts is the distance between the equator and each pole divided ? 
(d) W hat is each of them called? (7) What is meant by saying that a place is in 
1 Eat. ? (8) How far apart are the circles of latitude ? (9) Why are these 

circles called parallels? (10) What is S. Eat.? (11) What is a meridian ? 
(12) A hy is it necessary to have them upon maps? (13) Which meridian is 
most commonly chosen as zero? Why that one? (14) How high do the num- 
beis of the meridians run t (tig. 36.) (15) What is meant by saying that a 

place is in 3° E. Long.? In 90° W. Long.? (16) What is meant by circles of 
longitude? (17) What subdivisions of a degree are there? Why are they 
necessary? (18) Show that meridians are not parallel. (19) What is the length 
of a degree of longitude at the equator? (20) Show how a degree of latitude 
happens to be about 69 miles. (21) Explain why the time is continually changing 
as one goes west. As he goes east. (22) How has this caused annoyance in 
traveling? (23) What remedy has been found? (24) What are the names of 
the Standard Time Belts in the United States ? (25) What is the difference in time 
between the belts? (26) Which meridians are used to fix the boundaries? Why 
these? (27) Show the boundaries on the map (Fig. 38). (28) Why is standard 

time really incorrect for most places? 


Suggestions. (1) 4 ind how the streets of Washington have been numbered 
and lettered. (2) What is the latitude and longitude of Boston? Of Washing¬ 
ton ? 0i Chicago ? Of your nearest large city ? (3) Find some cities that are on 

oi near the 42d parallel of latitude. (4) What place is in 25° N. Eat. and 81° W 
Long. ? Near 40° N. Lat. and 75° W. Long. ? (5) Make a drawing showing sev¬ 

eral of the meridians. (G) Find places that have nearly the same latitude as your 
lome. (,) Where and how much would you change your watch in traveling 
from San i rancisco to Chicago? (8) What is the difference in time between 
Baltimore and Denver? (9) Examine some railway time tables to see how they 
indicate the changes in time. (10) What is the difference where you live between 
Standard Time and solar time? (11) Show on a globe or map where a ship 
would be m the Atlantic when in zero latitude and longitude. 


IV. UNITED STATES 



Berii 

Sea 


Hudson 
\ Say 


Montreal 


VorVs, 

^yPliilmlelphia , 
JulSaltimore *7 
Washington ^ 


ililwaukcc 


San 

Francisco JsSi 


New OrleansV 
Gulf of Me rico 
Havana 


NORTH AMERICA. V A 
Density of l’opulalionU v \' , t -<;■ 

CZ3 Less than 1 )ter Square Mile- ~^''S£'.' 

cm 1-25 . > 

Cm 25-125 “ ** •• 

125-500 “ •• « 

Cities with OTcr 200,000 Inhabitants are shown, 


The continent of North America is under the control of different 
nations. The Dominion of Canada is a British colony, as are New¬ 
foundland, Labrador, and some of the islands soutli of the United 
States. Name them. Greenland and Iceland are Danish colonies; 
but the countries of Central America, Mexico, and the United States 
aie independent nations. The United States also includes Alaska, 
the island of Porto Rico, 
the Philippines, Hawaii, 
and other islands of the 
Pacific. In addition to 
this, Cuba is under our 
protection. What is the 
name of the group of 
islands to which Cuba and 
Porto Rico belong? 

Our country is so large, 
and so different in the 
various parts, that in order 
to study it in detail we 
must divide it into sec¬ 
tions. The state boun¬ 
daries might serve as a 
means of thus dividing 1 the 

O 

country; but there are far 
too many of them. How 
many states are there ? 

Draw a sketch map of 


Fig. 39. 


the country, and place upon it the important rivers and mountains. 

In studying the states it is convenient to group them into five 
sections, of which the first is the New England group. As you 
study each of these sections, a very important point to notice is the 
scale upon which the map is drawn. For example, in Figure 47 
observe that a line slightly less than two inches long represents a 
distance of 100 miles. According to that scale, how long is the state 
of Connecticut ? According to the scale in Figure 60, what is the 
distance from New York to Buffalo? Compare the hitter distance 
with that from New York to Boston. It is thus always important 
to note the scale of any map that you use, whether it be one in this 
book, a wall map, or a map on an atlas. 


47 




Fig. 40. 

These pictures illustrate lumbering. The upper picture shows logging camp. The lower pic¬ 
ture shows logs being drawn to the frozen stream. 



Fig. 41. 


St. Johnsbury, Vt. 


A typical view in hilly New England, showing the irregular topographj 
and the large percentage of wooded surface. 

48 
















kangel I 


n ltd ton 

BctV 


/O ' 

Mkc O 
ninni]>eg 


£**cer VM 
** C-Siin i 


AcapiJci 


C K N T II A I 


rarai 


A 31 E K I C A 


Comparative Area 


45,-15 Square Wiles 


, t\l» 


art 


i^£££\ v tt 

v W&^Z%1$2 

u/ te - 




: so® i >^f 

HcXij WPfe* *■ 

j iAAA 2 #&f3»»r 4. 

W%^4 *1. ' 

: v D T\s T V\ T ^» C - Hcltt \ n 

a / M XL X :e^.V°A S ' 


Tmv OrleanXvVl \ 

o «ii/ o/ v ) r*o ^ \ 

„ . C.Sa6/M\<Q V?l£) L-"""• 

* •JKV-- - *t*5»» r „ 

- /^ AN G 'r^3fcS : - ; 

a Cl’lli 1 PPMltfSULA _^ ^ <=- >l I «• 


’rl) 4 N T | L L * 

| 5 e « UESSEB 

C«ribl>*« \ £8r 


NORTH AMERICA 

Scale of Miles 


u 500 

I ■ I I 1 I ,1 


1000 


Capitals <5> Other Cities • 


1 . 1 . rOATES CO.. N.Y. 


110° Longitude 100° West 


from 80’ Greenwich 70° 


Fia. 42. 


Map Questions. — This map and the relief map (Fig. 10) show the great Western 
highlands, the lower highland region of the East, and the great trough between. 
What are tlie names of the large rivers that drain the different sections? In which 
direction does each flow, and into what waters does each empty? In what part are 
most of the lakes found? Why? Name and locate each of the large peninsulas, 
islands, bays, gulfs, and seas. Draw an outline map of the continent. Upon it locate 
the large cities. 



































105° Greenwich 

Fig.44. 

































































j r Lake of 
■ /the Woods 


Montreal 


Duluth 


Ott»A 


fOgaT*te?% 

R“"to» 


'J 0 vom° # x / ON T A 


PierreS Mu 

1so.|dak.! 

(Sioux\Falli»[ 


5 IGrandl 
O Utapi'l 

- \ * 1 
•ft Lansin 


S«>« J 


Milwaukee 


Sioux 


hicagoi/.- 

jFt/Wayne < 
VPeoria j 

lMS01s7li‘«»napollA 

J aJ/ 


Toledo Cl O' 


l)es Moines 


' \Vhee\vnai_-V 

——"© *■’ 

Colniul*' 1 * . y , 


Lincoln 


nltior 


Topeka I 


i Jeifcrson 

i city 


A K K AN 

Little Hoc! 


Sava» nl 


I V Montgomery 


% /JucUmiii 


J ( St l 


Hquston 


\ew Orleans 


Galveston 


lake 


T I’fc KT /vt'y N 

. Y | I - s ^cr.__ 0ltc(*f ' u 0 i,;v i 

S^w^K^i i /S :~f7 teM iSS V .^'"^1 

utJirit^ N vFort Smith /^einph'^chaitanooghj^;—■**"“ 7 ... .• -r u \ N f 1 

V S>- tL- -A / .1 S« v _»A v-j 


®- 1 4ar\es‘ oU 


San Antonio 


UNITED STATES 

EASTERN SECTION 

ne Seale of Miles 

n rri|-1-1--—| 

0 50 100 200 300 

Capitals of Countries @ 
Capitals of States £ 

Other Cities • 

5Sa"5 


“V •*-», 


95° Longitude West 90° from_ Greenwich 8o 3 


i^o ro«ic« in** 1 * co.,\n.y 


Fig.44. 



























































NEW 


ENGLAND 


Modeled by Edwin E. Howell. 


SCALE 

O *5 SO “\5 \00 


Fig. 46. 


Relief map of New England. Describe the relief; (a) the location of the mountains, (b) the 
lowlands, (c) the lakes, ( d ) the drainage, (e) the nature of the coast line. 









C»ribou 


Levis 


Heron L 


ThreeVtiveri?' 


Cheeuueook /Y j vfl I 

-Z\J.i<le M rO( atahdi n'-A I 


Mpotehead B 
A Lake la ’eN 
X. Pem ailum cv 


Sherbrooke 


Lake 

Memphremugog\ 


'«cata<l'*' 


Mt'Alfraham 
t J J'-rT^Saddleback 

L y%jKL ' ' KMt - 

^ Farmlngtol 

io Rum ford 
£ ( I Fails JK- 

fj^ fcifiX 1 Paris I 
Z^Mt'Wa&fimgton 


£ wanton 


'Oldtcwn 


;• St.Albany 

M t. Munatre 


Skowhegai 


Bangor \ 


} flaked 

I y^ vJi 

VIiai/tplai\t 

Y BurlingW 

^ J* “M 

AHirondachK |, 


MachU? 


ate rv III® 


tancasi 

msburv^ 


Stowe 


Belfast. 


i&llowcU 


Barre 


Lewiston 


X.ConwayG 


uburcT 


Randolph 


infwick 


■Brand. n’ 


Hartford’ 


Weetbfook 


Graft* 


UddefordyW^o 

^K/nnebunk 
B^rw 1c k 

J ;AV f ' 
^iV-yYork 

Piscataqua R 
Portsmouth 
/ ISLES OF SHOA 


anklin 


Rochester! 


I Claremont 


o/i cord 


a* heater 


• Bonn mg ton y< ‘ 
I3rattleboro\\ 


eene 


• Newburypcrt 

^lC\C.Ann 
VJs.^'-V .I u u t e s I «* r 


Nashui 


Nortbficla 
•—Fitch h 
Gardner 


J ^ Greenfield' 

a ] s < 

/ f ( North- > 


N Pittsfield 


(pea Massachti 

8ton ISay 

%° U,h C.Cod 

. vA Cuj» c<«ru 
-f* Plymouth 


£ ®e«tflaldVv 


\ ” ? st ^\ J* Thoiupsonvillel 

/ I f A. /A q • Rockville p„ 

1 H WAj ? Pr.yi 

Bristol. Vl jj^ r Britain (A 

' o >Ax e*((t i c rvi $ 

•rburjr,* .N Norwich .V V 

S> l Alia^iet^wn 

J Mnsonla ^^New London r 

PerbjY N©W HuvVill 

»Pt *?% 


Taunton 


Fig. 47. 

Map Questions. — (1) Name the states of this group. (2) What is the capital of each? (3) Where 
are the mountains? (4) Into what bay does the Penobscot River flow? (5) What large island just east 
of it? (f>) Find three large lakes. In which state is each? (7) Where are the largest cities? Why 
there ? (8) What cape is about twenty-five miles north of Boston ? (0) What cape is southeast of Boston ? 
(10) Find Massachusetts Bay. (11) Find Cape Cod Ray. (12) What two large islands lie south of Massa¬ 
chusetts? (13) What two bays near them? (14) What large island lies south of Connecticut? (15) In 
what state is it? (See Fig. 62.) (16) What waters separate it from Connecticut? 


t.s 


FkP 




lake 


SEAL I 


I" 


! V 

I Vei ,:jt UbTV‘ <*£&*antueket Monomoy 

"a 

0~k> VT ) NANTUCKET I. 

tM 5 <>■ * 

7* ° u.' 


NEW ENGLAND 
STATES 


Scale of Miles 


Capitals of States © Other Cities 


LI. I*CAT4* «*•♦♦••& CO., N V. 


Li reen wich 


from 


Longitude 


West 



































































\Lake \ 
'Champlain 


Montpelier 


Portland 


Concord 


Portsmouth' 
isles of/ . 

“'SHOALS / / 


’anchester * 


Ciip4 Ailn 


/^SaJen/^ 




Wore 1 


i \SpringfieId 

‘T - **’ f| • . . . 


6”. Corf 


Hartfor 


! EHO 
j I 8 L J 


Newport 


A New Haven 


MARTHAS.. VJ 


NANTUCKET I 


l_ON G 


/I r L ;1 xV TIC 


m.-n, works. 


Boston and vicinity. Notice the steamship and railway lines 


number of cities near Boston. 


converging at Boston. Also the 






































V. NEW ENGLAND 


Physiography and Climate. — Many facts in regard to New Eng¬ 
land are already familiar from what has been said in Section I. The 
sinking of the coast has made the shore line extremely irregular, 
thus forming many fine harbors. The great glacier from the north 
has left its traces everywhere. By damming the streams and turn¬ 
ing them from their courses, it has caused many lakes (Fig. 12), falls, 
and rapids. The whole surface of the country, with its bare rock 
ledges and boulder-strewn soil, has resulted from the long-continued 
action of the glacier. For many years the edge of the ice sheet ex¬ 
tended along the southern margin of New England; and the moraine 
hills and sandy plains that it piled up now cover much of Cape Cod, 
Martha’s Vineyard, Nantucket Island, and Long Island. 

While low near the coast, the land rises rapidly toward the north 
and west, and 
soon becomes a 
plateau crossed 
by river valleys 
the bottoms of 
which are sev¬ 
eral hundred 
feet below the 
plateau top. 

T h e u p 1 a n d 
near the coast 
has been so cut 
by many valleys 
that the surface 
is studded with 

low hills. But in the west, the higher upland, known as the Berk¬ 
shire Hills, is quite mountainous. 

Other mountains, in some cases where the rocks are hard, rise 
above the plateau. Some of these, like Mt. Monadnock in southern 
New Hampshire (Fig. 49), rise singly ; others, like the White 
Mountains of New Hampshire (Fig. 50), are in groups ; and still 

49 



Fig. 49. 

A view across the upland of New England, with Mt. Monadnock 
rising in the background. Describe this view. 












50 


NORTH AMERICA 


others, such as the Green Mountains of Vermont and the continua¬ 
tion of the White Mountains across northern Maine, form irregular 
ranges. Many of the mountain peaks reach from three thousand 
to four thousand feet above sea-level; but Mt. Washington in New 
Hampshire is more than a mile in height, and Mt. Katahdin in 
Maine (Fig. 58, p. 64) rises to a height of nearly a mile. 

New England is so far north that its climate is cold in the north¬ 
ern part and the snows are heavy. This coldness is increased by a 
cold current from the Arctic Ocean known as the Labrador current, 



Fig. 50. The Presidential Range in winter, from the west. 

which makes the east winds cool in summer, and damp and chilly in 
winter. On the other hand, since a current of warm water from the 
Gulf of Mexico, called the Gulf Stream (Fig. 264, p. 264), approaches 
to within a hundred miles of the coast of southern New England, 
that southern section has warm south winds and little snow in winter.' 


The Forests 

Cutting the Timber. —In the days of the early settlers there was 
so much forest m New England that lumber was one of the first 
products sent back to England. Now, where the soil is fertile, 
most of the woods have been cleared away; but large sections in 
northern Maine, New Hampshire (Fig. 50), and Vermont, as well 
as parts of the three southern states, are still covered with timber 
Standing on the summit of Mt. Katahdin (Fig. 58), for instance 
one sees only a vast wilderness of trees in all directions. The near¬ 
est cultivated land is twenty-five miles to the east; but the forests 
stretch much farther away to the north and west. 











NEW ENGLAND 


51 


\\ inter is the busy season in this wilderness, for at that time men 
go into the forests to cut the timber. Lumbering in Maine is 
an interesting occupation, but it involves so many hardships that 
a lumberman is said to become an old man after a few years of 
service. 


It is often necessary to work when the temperature is far below zero. 
The swamps, which are numerous, and in summer almost impassable, are 
then frozen. At that season, also, the snows have leveled over the 
boulders and fallen trees so that heavy sleds, loaded with logs, may be 
drawn through the woods. 

Usually fifty men or more are necessary to a logging camp. With 
axes in hand, they go through the woods, cutting all the trees that are 
large and sound enough for good lumber. These are cut down, the limbs 
chopped off, and the logs dragged by horses to the banks of the nearest 
stream. The men go forth early in the morning and work until late in 
the evening, eating and sleeping in log cabins. Their beds are broad 
shelves of rough boards covered with boughs from the spruce and balsam 
trees, while the one sleeping room is usually warmed by a large stove in 
its middle. 

Floating the Logs to the Mills. —When the snow melts in the 
spring, the cutting is over and another busy season begins. The 
logs that are ready are whirled away by the stream current, now 
swollen by the melting snows ; but frequently even this flood of 
water is not sufficient to carry them. To provide against that 
difficulty, dams are placed across the streams, or at the outlet of 
lakes, to store water for use when needed. Immense numbers of 
logs are floated, or “driven,” down stream, forming what the lum¬ 
bermen call a “log drive.” 

The work of driving the logs down stream is a very exciting one. 
Rocks and shoals often check them in their course ; and, as soon as one 
gets caught, others are held back by it, so that, if the jam is not speedily- 
removed, the entire stream may soon become blocked, and all the logs 
above be prevented from floating down. Such a condition is called a log 
jam , and it is the business of the men to prevent it by keeping the logs 
moving along in the river, and by freeing any that may become lodged. 
To do this, they must often wade into the icy water and ride upon the 
logs. It is common to see-a man glide along on a single log, clinging 
to it by means of the sharp spikes in his boots, balancing himself with a 
long pole, and jumping from log to log, as a squirrel springs from tree to 
tree. The men are often wet from head to foot, and sometimes one is 
thrown into the water and drowned. 


52 


NORTH AMERICA 


Sawmills and Paper-mills. — Some of the logs are stopped near 
waterfalls far up stream and there sawed into boards, laths, shingles, 
etc., but most of them are carried as far as the current will take 
them, even down to the river mouths. These places are natural 
sites for large towns and cities, because there the logs must be made 
into lumber for the manufacture of various articles, and all of this 



requires much work and many men. 

Where the current of the Penobscot will carry the logs no far¬ 
ther, that is, where the ocean tide checks the river current, the large 
city of Bangor has grown up, since ocean vessels may come to 
this place to carry off the lumber. The drives of the Kenne¬ 
bec and Androscoggin are 
stopped at the sawmills in 
several cities along those 
rivers, such as Water- 
ville, and Augusta, 
the capita] ; but some are 
carried down as far as 
Bath, which is noted for 
its ship building. On the 
wharves of Portland, the 
largest city in Maine, are 
quantities of boards ready 
to be shipped away to be 
made into boxes, barrels, 
doors, and hundreds of 
other articles. 

Another important use 
of forest trees is to make 
paper, for much of the 
paper commonly seen — 
as newspaper and wrapping paper — is now made of wood. Short logs 
(two-foot lengths) after having the bark removed are placed in & a 
steel mclosure and forced against an enormous grindstone. The 
pulp thus ground off is carried away by water, run through a sieve, 
c eposited on a wide belt, and compressed into thin sheets between 
rollers. When dry it is paper. One does not often think when 
reading the news, or wrapping a package, that the paper in his hands 
may once have been part of a live tree in the forest, perhaps in the 
woods of Maine. Pulp is also made by help of chemicals 


Fig. 51. 

Lumbermen in the Maine woods.* 















NEW ENGLAND 


53 


Paper-mills, some using rags as well as wood pulp, are found at 
Waterville, Gardiner, Westbrook, Rumford Falls, Milli- 
nockett, and other places in Maine. However, Holyoke, the 
greatest paper-making city in New England, is situated in the midst 
of other busy cities in Massachusetts. At Holyoke the pulp is gen¬ 
erally made of rags, which produce a finer grade of paper. The 
neighboring cities assure a large supply of the necessary rags. 


Among the trees in the forests of northern New England is one kind 
called the sugar maple. It is very common in Vermont, although it grows 
in many other states also, as in New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio. Its 
sap, unlike that of most trees, is sweet; and if one bores a hole through 
the bark in early spring, when this liquid is moving through the trees 
most rapidly, it will ooze forth. This sap is boiled to drive off some of 
the water, and maple sirup or maple sugar is the result. 


The Rocks 

There are three kinds of stone that are especially valuable in 
New England, namely, granite, marble, and slate, each of which is 
quarried in large quantities. 

Granite. — Many of the hills and even mountains, such as Mts. 
Washington and Katahdin, are almost solely granite ; but this is not 
often quarried, because it is too difficult to draw the heavy stone 



Fia. 52. 

Marble quarry. Notice the derricks used for handling the heavy blocks of stone. 

(Md. Geol. Survey.) 








54 


NORTH AMERICA 


from the mountains to places where it is needed. The quarries have 
generally been located close to cities, or near the sea where the stone 
may be cheaply sent away by ship. One of the oldest quarries in 
the country is at Quincy, near Boston (Fig. 47), and buildings made 
of Quincy granite over two hundred years ago may still be seen in 
Boston. Other quarries are found in and near Gloucester, Mass., 
Barre, Vt., Concord, N.H., and along the coast of Maine. 

Beds of stone have seams, called joints, extending through them. These 
aid greatly in quarrying; for, in splitting out large blocks, the quarrymen 
need only to drill holes, and then, with gunpowder, blast or break the 
granite from one joint to the next. Smaller pieces are obtained by drilling 
holes into the large blocks and breaking them apart by driving in wedges. 

Much of the granite is used for paving-stones in the city streets, 
where heavy wagons are constantly passing. For that purpose large 
blocks aie split into halves, these into smaller halves, and so on until 
the proper size is reached. Other large blocks are loaded into boats 
at the wharf and carried to Boston, New York, or even as far as New 
Orleans, where they are used as curbstones, blocks for buildings, and 
for other purposes. Several of the government buildings at Wash¬ 
ington are made of New England granite. 

One of the principal uses of granite is for monuments, columns, 
and other ornamental work. The stone is well suited for this pur¬ 
pose because of its beautiful color, which varies in different quarries, 
being gray, almost white, bluish, or distinctly red ; and most of it 
will take a high polish. 

Marble.—This stone is so much softer than granite that it may 
be sawed without being blasted. The most noted marble quarries in 
the United States are near Rutland, Vt,, where much of the stone, 
is white, though some of it is streaked with blue. In other places, . 
as in Tennessee, the colors are different and often very beautiful. 

Marble is too soft for paving-stones, but is much used for build¬ 
ings, statues, and monuments, the Rutland marble being one of the 
most common headstones in the cemeteries of the East. ^ Like gran¬ 
ite, it may be given a high polish. Some of the most highly prized 
marble, mostly obtained from foreign countries, is so banded and 
variegated that, when polished, it makes a beautiful ornamental stone 
foi intei 101 s of cathedrals and public buildings. 

White marble lias been used for many centuries for making fine statues • 
m fact, long before the time of Christ, the Greeks built the marble Parthe- 


NEW ENGLAND 


55 


non upon the Acropolis of Athens, and cut marble statues, such as that of 
the Venus of Milo, which.have become famous on account of their mar¬ 
velous beauty. 

Slate. — Slate rock is quarried in several parts of New England, as in 
eastern Maine and western Massachusetts and Vermont. It is also obtained 
in Pennsylvania. The value of slate is due largely to the fact that it splits, 
or cleaves, so easily that it is readily broken into thin slabs with a smooth 
surface. In this way it is made into roofing slate and school slates; from 
it also are made slate pencils, slabs for wash-basins, etc. 


Fishing 


Still another raw product of New England is fish. When the 
country was first settled, great numbers of various kinds, especially 
mackerel, halibut, and cod, were found close to the shore. Such 
names as Cape Cod, Halibut Point, and Bass Rock, given to places 
on the coast, indicate this. Find the first of these. Province- 
town, on Cape Cod, is still engaged in the fishing industry. 

Fish supplied the first settlers with one of their chief foods, and 
the fishing industry soon became of importance. You will remem¬ 
ber (p. 33) that it was the fishing which first attracted the French to 
the American coast; and they still retain the right to fish along the 
Newfoundland shore. 

Near the coast, fish are now much less abundant; but since they are 
still found farther from the shore, hundreds of vessels and thousands of 
men are engaged in catching them. Gloucester, which is a center 
for that industry, is the greatest fishing port in the United States (Fig. 
53); but Boston and Portland also have an important fish trade. 

Mackerel. — Mackerel are obtained in spring and summer. They 



Fiu. 53. 

A view in Gloucester harbor, showing the fishing schooners, the wharves where the fish are 

landed, and the buildings in which they are stored. 











56 


NORTH AMERICA 


swim together, and in such numbers — in schools , as fishermen say — 
that they make a great commotion in the water. The fishermen, who 
are cruising about in search of the fish, sail in swift, two-masted ves¬ 
sels, called schooners. When they sight a “school,” they spring into 
their great seine boats, drop a large seine, or net, into the water, and 
endeavor to draw it around the “ school.” Then the seine is drawn 
in, forming a pocket and entrapping the fish. In this pocket enough 
fish are sometimes obtained to fill hundreds of barrels. Some are 
sold fresh, others are salted and sold as salt mackerel. 

Halibut and Codfish. — I he method of fishing described above is 
similar to that which the Disciples of Christ used in the Sea of Galilee. 
Tut fishing for halibut and cod is very different. This is carried on 



Fig. 54. 

Vertical section through a portion of the sea illustrating cod fishing by means of a trawl. 


in winter as well as summer, and the vessels go from Gloucester even 
as far as Greenland and Iceland, although most of them fish on the 
Fishing Banks off the New England and Newfoundland coasts. 

Halibut are very large, often weighing more than a man; and 
they are often caught upon single lines. Codfish may be captured 
in the same manner, though a trawl (Fig. 54) is more commonly used 
for cod than for halibut. The trawl consists of a number of hooks 
hanging from a single long line, all lowered into the water together 
and left there for hours. The fish bite at the bait on the suspended 
hooks, and in this way many are caught at one time. 

This kind of fishing is dangerous because the men must venture out in 
small, flat-bottomed boats, called dories , to take the fish off the trawls. 













NEW ENGLAND 


57 


While they are busy a storm may arise, or a heavy fog come up, and pre¬ 
vent their return to the vessel. They are then left in open boats far out 

upon the ocean. Every year dozens of Gloucester fishermen are lost in 
this manner. 

As in the case of mackerel, codfish are sold either fresh or salt. In 
order to salt, or cure them, they are split open and cleaned, soaked in 
barrels of brine, and then dried upon the wharf. Sometimes the bones 
are removed, the skin stripped off, and the flesh torn into shreds and 
packed into boxes as boneless cod. Either the salted or boneless cod may 
be seen in almost any grocery, and much of it comes from Gloucester. 

Other Ocean Foods. Traps, or weirs (Fig. 55), are also set for fish. 
They are placed along the shore, and many kinds of fish, such as shad, 
salmon, and bass, swim into them and are then unable to find their way 
out. Lobster fishing is also carried on, especially on the coast of Maine. 
A lobster trap, made of wood and weighted with stojie, is lowered to the 



Fig. 55. 


A fish weir at Bar Harbor, Maine. The large buildings are summer hotels. 

* 

bottom, where the lobster lives, crawling around among the rocks and sea¬ 
weed. A fish-head for bait is inside the trap, and the lobster crawls in to 
get it; but he is so stupid that he is rarely able to find his way out.' 

Clams, found along many parts of the New England coast, live buried 
in the mud flats which are exposed to view at low tide. At such times 
boys and men dig these shell fish out, much as a farmer digs potatoes 
from a hill. 

Agriculture 

Much of New England is hilly, mountainous, or so strewn with 
glacial boulders, that farming is not so extensive an industry as in 
many other parts of the country. By no means all the food that is 
needed can be raised in this Section, much grain and meat having to 
be brought from the Mississippi Valley and elsewhere. And since 
the southern portion of New England is thickly dotted with cities, 
where the people are engaged in other occupations, there is a ready 
market for whatever food the farmers can supply. 

6—A Q 


















58 


NORTH AMERICA 


Each farm usually has a small orchard and produces hay and grain 
which are fed to cattle and horses, or sold near by. All the farmers 
keep a few hens and sell the chickens and eggs, and some make a 
business of raising hens, turkeys, and ducks. One of the occupa¬ 
tions of the farmers is truck farming , which means that various kinds 
of vegetables, as tomatoes, sweet corn, potatoes, cucumbers, cabbages, 
and celery, are carefully cultivated, and these, together with milk 
and eggs, are sent to the nearest town to be sold. The farmer often 



Fie. 50. 

A view on a Massachusetts farm, showing some fine breeds of milch cows. 

takes them himself and sells them from house to house, thus securing 
higher prices than if he sold them to a storekeeper. Why? 

Strangers traveling through New England, upon seeing the hilly 
surface and rocky soil, are often puzzled to understand how, from 
such small farms, the owners can earn enough to build such large 
houses and barns, to furnish their homes so well, and to have so 
many books and pictures. But the excellent markets in the cities 
near at hand afford the explanation. 

Where the farms are so far away from the cities that it is impossible 
to diive to them, the profits are less; but special arrangements are made 
for the marketing of milk. So much of this is needed in the large cities 
that special cars, carrying nothing but cans of milk, are run from far out 
in the country. Also a great deal of milk is made into butter and cheese, 
sometimes on the farm, but much more commonly at factories, or cream¬ 
eries, where the work is done by machinery. 

In some parts of New England, where the soil is very poor and no 
market is near, farming has been so unsuccessful that many farms have 
been abandoned, orchards are grown up with weeds, and houses and barns 
are tumbling down. This is especially true in the more hilly parts of 
New England. 




NEW ENGLAND 


59 


Manufacture g 

When the Puritans settled New England it was very expensive 
to bring from over the sea the articles that they needed. Neverthe¬ 
less, at first they imported not only furniture and tools, but even 
wood for the interior of houses and bricks for the walls, fireplaces, 
and chimneys. Even now, in some of the older New England build¬ 
ings, one sees doors and rafters that came from across the ocean 
many generations ago. 

Very soon, however, the settlers began to make for themselves 
such articles as shoes, cloth, and lumber. Thus manufacturing 
began early in this region, and the industry was greatly aided by the 
water power, caused by the 
glacier. It was also aided 
by the many lakes. These 
serve as reservoirs from 
which, even during times 
of drought, a steady sup¬ 
ply of water is secured for 
the falls and rapids. 

Many mills and facto¬ 
ries sprang up near the 
coast, and later in the in¬ 
terior, and thus New Eiur- 
land soon became the prin¬ 
cipal manufacturing sec¬ 
tion of the whole country. 

Its many large cities owe 
their existence chiefly to 
this industry. Hundreds 
of articles are made, those 
composed of cotton, wool, 
leather, and metal 
being the most important. 

It may seem strange that this should be the case, since none of 
tlrese raw materials are extensively produced in New England. But 
the abundant waterfalls furnished such excellent power that it paid 
to bring the raw materials there to be manufactured. Therefore 
chiefly on account of its water power, manufacturing developed in 
New England ; and the people learned the art so well that factories 
were later built, even where there was no water power. This is true 



Fig. .’V7. 

A waterfall that supplies power to some factories in 
one of the smaller manufacturing towns of New 
England. 
















60 


NORTH AMERICA 


in Boston, for instance, where steam power is used. Nowadays the 
location of a mill near an important railway, or near some other good 
shipping point, is a more important matter than its location near 
water power. 

Cotton Manufacturing.— There are about four hundred cotton 
mills in New England, making such articles as sheets, towels, stock¬ 
ings, underwear, thread, string, handkerchiefs, and gingham and 
calico dress goods. As many as twelve hundred persons are fre¬ 
quently employed in a single mill. Of this number perhaps three 
quarters are women, and they may use from sixty thousand to seventy 
thousand pounds of cotton per day. Most of the cotton is brought 
from lexas and other Southern States; but some of it comes from 
Egypt and other foreign countries. 

The cotton arrives in bales, weighing about five hundred pounds each, 
and is made into cloth by machinery in the following manner: First the 
dirt, small sticks, etc., are removed. Then the cotton fibers of various 
lengths are combed out straight and well mixed with one another. After 
I that they are pressed into thin, gauze-like sheets. These are gradually 
drawn and twisted into threads, and then wound upon spindles and taken 
to the looms for weaving. 

Cotton cloths are nothing more than such threads woven together, 
those that extend lengthwise of the piece being called the warp , and those 
across it, the woof. An ordinary piece of calico has a warp of perhaps 
twelve hundred threads, while a wide piece of cloth, such as a sheet for a 
bed, may contain as many as twenty-five hundred. Stripes are made by 
coloring the threads differently, and then, before the weaving begins, by 
carefully arranging them according to some design. 

Wool Manufacturing. — Wool is cut, or sheared , from sheep, and 
much of that which is manufactured into cloth in New England is 
obtained from Ohio and other states farther west. Large quantities 
are also imported from Australia. 

After being sheared from the sheep, the wool is washed and freed from 
burs, sticks, etc. Then it is untangled and combed out straight, after 
which it is twisted into yarn, much as cotton is twisted into thread. The 
yarn is woven into cloth for men’s suits and overcoats, and also for cloaks, 
skirts, underwear, blankets, stockings, carpets, and dozens of other articles. 
Most, if not all, of the garments that you are wearing are either made 
of wool or cotton, or of the two mixed together. 

The cities extensively engaged in the manufacture of either cot¬ 
ton or woolen cloth, or both, are, in Maine, Biddeford, Lewiston, 
Auburn, and Augusta, the capital ; in New Hampshire, Man- 


NEW ENGLAND 


61 


Chester, Nashua, and Dover; in Massachusetts, Lowell and 
Lawrence on the Merrimac River, Pittsfield in western Massa¬ 
chusetts, and h all River, New Bedford, and Taunton in the 
southern part; in Rhode Island, Pawtucket, Woonsocket, and 
Providence (Fig. 47), which is the second city in size in New 
England. One of the largest cotton factories in the world is at 
Manchester, N.II. 

Leather Manufacturing.— Root and shoe making is carried on in 
a number of cities, though the most important are Lynn, Haver¬ 
hill, and Brockton in Massachusetts. Leather is made from the 
hides of animals, such as cattle, sheep, goats, horses, and hogs. 
After the hair is removed, the hides are taken to tanneries , where 
they are soaked in a liquid to make them durable. 


Some of the tanneries are situated near forests, as in Michigan, where 
there are many hemlock trees, whose bark produces the tannic acid for 
tanning. Others are in the mountains of North Carolina, where a kind of 
oak grows from which tannic acid is made. Some of the tanneries of 
New England are also near the forest; but many, as those in and about 
Salem, are so far away that the bark, as well as the hides, must he brought 
a long distance to them. 

In othei tanneries, chemicals are used in place of the tannic acid from 
hemlock oi oak bark. In a single tannery near Boston, where sheep skins 
are tanned, from thirty thousand to forty thousand skins are used each week. 

After being thus prepared, the leather is brought to the shoe factories 
and cut up, one machine cutting out soles of a certain size, a second tops, a 
third tongues, etc.; these parts are then sewed or nailed together, and the 
shoes are soon finished. As in the case of cotton and wool manufacturing 

n / 

nearly all the work is done by machinery, each person caring for one or 
more machines and performing the same simple task day after day. 

Besides boots and shoes, leather is made into many other articles, 
as bookbindings, harness, pocketbooks, and bicycle saddles. Can 
you not name some others ? 

Metal Manufacturing.—On account of the water power, New 
England early became engaged in manufacturing metals into various 
articles ; and, although steam now largely takes the place of water, 
these industries are still very extensive, especially in the three 
southern states. Since almost no coal and iron are produced in 
that section, these two materials must be shipped from other states. 
Therefore, large, heavy objects that require much metal and coal are 
not usually made. 

The lighter articles, as jewelry, clocks, needles, cutlery, tools, 


62 


NORTH AMERICA 


and firearms, that require a high degree of skill, are the chief articles 
manufactured from metal in New England. Eor instance, Worces¬ 
ter (fig. 47), near Boston, is noted for its manufacture of wire and 
iron goods, besides envelopes, boots, and shoes; Providence manu¬ 
factures great quantities of jewelry ; New Haven is noted for hard¬ 
ware and firearms; Bridgeport manufactures carriages, sewing 
machines, etc.; Hartford, at the head of steamboat navigation on 
the Connecticut River, and Springfield, farther north, in Massa¬ 
chusetts, both produce firearms, cars, and bicycles. Fitchburg is 
also engaged in metal manufacturing. 


Near Boston, at Waltham, the American Watch Company has an 
immense factory where twenty-one hundred watches are made every day 
About twenty-four hundred persons, more than half of whom are women* 
are employed there, receiving $ 100,000 a month in wages. Great numbers 
of clocks and watches are made in Waterbury, and jewelry and cutlery 
at Meriden, Connecticut; and in hundreds of smaller cities, towns and 
villages m New England there are factories and mills of various sorts. 
Also some of the cities occupied in cotton and woolen manufacturing 
such as Fall River, Lowell, and New Bedford, are engaged in the 
manufacture of iron and other metals. 


Largest Cities and Chief Shipping Routes 

The Large Cities. All this manufacturing calls for an immense 
amount of cotton, wool, leather, metals, coal, and food ; and most of 
these products come from outside New England. It is not strano- e , 
therefore, that there are many cities on the coast. For instance' 
Portland (Fig. 47), the largest city in Maine, has an excellent 
harbor, and is the eastern terminus of the Grand Trunk Railway 
which runs through Canada, so that in winter, when the St. Law¬ 
rence River is frozen over, it is a shipping point for Canadian 
goods.^NEw Haven, the largest city in Connecticut, Providence 

( Ag 47), the largest in Rhode Island, and Boston, the greatest in 
New England, are all on the seacoast. 

The seacoast of New Hampshire is very small, and the largest city 
Manchester, engaged m manufacturing, is inland near some falls in the 
Me! umac Liver; but on the coast is the important city of Portsmouth 
nnont has no seacoast. Its largest city, Burlington, engaged in lum¬ 
bering and manufacturing, is on Lake Champlain. 

Boston and Vicinity. — The most important of all the New Eng¬ 
land cities is Boston, which is fifth in size in the United States. It 


NEW ENGLAND 


(J3 


is itself a great manufacturing center, being engaged in most of the 
industries already named, and in making clothing particularly. 
About it are many large cities and towns in which also are large 
manufactories (big. 48). In addition, these cities serve as places of 
residence for many of the business men of Boston. 

Among these the largest are Cambridge and Somerville (Fig. 48), 
which are extensively engaged in meat packing, machine manufacturing, 
and printing. Other cities near Boston are represented on Figure 48. 
Among these are Chelsea and Malden, each of which is engaged in 
manufacturing rubber goods and other articles. Not far from Boston is 
Salem, which in the early days was even more important than Boston. 
Since its harbor is too shallow for the deep ships of the present time, this 
city has lost much of its commerce, which is now carried on in Boston. 
Notice in Figure 32 that Salem was one of the large cities in 1790. 

The great size of Boston is due largely to its excellent harbor 
(big. 48) and its central location. Many railway lines reach out 
from the city toward all parts of the country, while numerous steam¬ 
ship lines connect Boston with all important points along the coast 
and with foreign countries (Fig. 48). 

The port of Boston is second in importance in the United States. 
Raw materials are sent there in great quantities for distribution 
among factories, and the finished goods are shipped all over the 
world. Also much grain and meat for food reach Boston from the 
* West, and from there are distributed among the smaller cities, or 
shipped to foreign countries. These, in return, send such articles 
as coffee, tea, and bananas, which are needed in New England. 

Boston and vicinity have been important from the beginning of our 
history. There, at the commencement of the Revolutionary War, occurred 
the Boston Tea Party, Paul Revere’s ride, and the Battle of Bunker Hill. 
The vicinity of Boston is also noted for its literary associations. Harvard 
College, the oldest in the United States, was founded in 1836 at Cam¬ 
bridge, three miles from Boston. Yale College, at New Haven, Ct., was 
established sixty-five years later, in 1701. Longfellow, Lowell, Holmes, 
and Agassiz were professors at Harvard; and Hawthorne, Emerson, 
Thoreau, and Whittier lived near by. 

Summer Resorts 

New England is so extensively engaged in manufacturing and other 
forms of business, that immense numbers of people dwell in cities, where, 
during most of the year, they are closely confined in noisy factories, or 
in offices and stores. To these, the wooded mountains, the silvery lakes 


64 


NORTH AMERICA 


(Fig. 12) and rivers, the green valleys, and the rocky seacoast offer such 
attractions that each summer tens of thousands run away from town for a 
week, or even for months, to enjoy their vacations at these places. 

They go to the green slopes of the beautiful Berkshire Hills and Green 
Mountains, or climb about among the rugged peaks of the White Moun¬ 
tains to enjoy the magnificent scenery (Fig. 50). Many plunge into the 
woods of Maine or northern New Hampshire, to hunt and fish, or to canoe 
upon the streams and lakes. Others settle down at farmhouses to enjoy 
the quiet of the country (Figs. 49 and 56). 

While great numbers visit the woods, mountains, and country, many 
go to the seashore to escape the heat and to bathe in the salt water, or to 



Fig. 58. 


Katahdin Lake, Maine. Mt. Katahdin rises in the background. 

sail and row. So many go there, in fact, that almost the entire New Eng¬ 
land coast is dotted with summer cottages and hotels. Thousands visit 
1)A.k Harbor (on Mt. Desert Island in Maine, Fig. 55), which is therefore 
a very busy place in summer. Nantucket Island and Martha’s Vineyard 
ate similar resorts farther south, while Newport, just west of them, on 
Narragansett Bay, is noted for its many magnificent summer homes. 


QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 

Review Questions. — (1) What effects have the glacier and the sinking of 
the coast had upon New England ? (2) Describe the surface of the country and 

name the principal mountain ranges. (3) IIow do ocean currents influence its 
w Describe lumbering in Maine. (5) To what use is lumber put? 
(b) IVhat cities are noted for it? (7) How are maple sugar and sirup made in 








NEW ENGLAND 


65 


Vermont? (8) State how granite is quarried and what its uses are. (9) State 
the same about marble and slate. (10) Describe each of the kinds of fishing on 
the New England coast. (11) Tell about the farming. (12) What led to the 
early development of manufacturing in New England? (13) What now deter¬ 
mines the site of a factory? (14) Describe cotton manufacturing. (15) Wool 
manufacturing. (16) On the map, locate the cities most extensively engaged in 
either or both of these. (17) Tell about the tanning of leather. (18) About the 
manufacture of boots and shoes. (19) Locate the cities most noted for these indus¬ 
tries. (20) What can you say about the manufacture of metals? (21) Name 
and locate the chief cities engaged in it. (22) Give several facts about Boston. 
(23) What large cities are near it? (24) Where and how do the people take their 
summer outing? (25) Make a drawing of the New England States, including the 
chief rivers, cities, and the state boundaries. 

Review by States: Maine ( Me .). — (1) Draw the coast line of Maine. 
(2) What makes it so irregular? (3) Find the principal rivers. (4) What 
cities are situated on each? (5) Should you expect much fishing along the coast? 
Why? (6) What reasons can you give why so many people resort to the Maine 
coast and woods in summer ? (7) Describe the lumbering in Maine. (8) What 

cilies are engaged in producing lumber? Why? (9) What stones are quarried 
in the state ? (10) Which is the largest city? IIow does it compare in size with 

Boston and Providence? (See Appendix pp. iv-vi.) (11) What other cities 
in Maine are mentioned in the text? Find them on the map. (12) Draw an 
outline map of Maine, locating the principal rivers and lakes, the capital, and the 
chief cities. Do the same for each of the other states as you study about it. 

New Hampshire ( N.II. ).— (13) What large lakes are found in this state? 
What river? (14) Name the cities oil it.. (15) For what are they important? 
(16) Why are there not more cities in northern New Hampshire? (17) What 
industry should you expect there ? (18) Find Mt. Washington ; it is the highest 

peak in New England. (19) Where should you expect to find most farming? 
(20) IIow does the largest city in the state compare in size with Portland? 

Vermont ( Vt .). — (21) What large lake on the western boundary? Into what 
waters does it flow ? (22) What river on the eastern boundary? Through what 

states does it pass? (23) What is the name of the mountains? (24) Lumbering 
is carried on, as in Maine; into what waters must the lumber be floated? (25) What 
other Vermont industries are mentioned in the text? (26) There is also farming 
in the fertile valleys and manufacturing, as at Brattleboro. Find Brattleboro. 
(27) Compare the size of the largest city with that of Manchester, N.II. 

Massachusetts (Mass.). — (28) Measure the length and width of Massachusetts 
and compare it with Vermont and Maine. (29) Name the large cities near 
Boston. (See Fig. 48.) (30) Find Plymouth; for what is it noted? (31) Find 

the principal cities mentioned in the text and tell where each is located. 
(32) For what is each important? (33) What advantages do you see in 
the location of each? (34) Where is the mountainous portion of the state? 

(35) What effect should you expect the mountains to have upon agriculture? 

(36) State as clearly as you can the reasons why Boston has grown as it has. 

(37) Of what importance is Boston to the cities near by? (38) Of what impor¬ 
tance are they to Boston ? 

Rhode Island (R.I.). — (39) Measure this and compare its length and width 
with that of Massachusetts and Maine. It is the smallest state in the Union. 
(40) What is the name of the bay in this state? What cities are situated on 
it? (41) What large city is in Rhode Island? (42) Compare its size with Boston 


66 


NORTH AMERICA 


and Portland. (43) Should you expect much lumbering in Rhode Island ? Why ? 
(44) Farming? Why? 

Connecticut (( onn. or CtC ).— (45) Where are the mountains in this state? 
(46) Locate each of the cities mentioned in the text. (47) Tell for what each 
is important. (48) The farms of Connecticut are better than those of Maine. 
Give reasons for this. (49) There is almost no lumbering in this state. Why? 
(50) Compare the size of New Haven with that of Boston and Portland. See 
Appendix, pp. v and vi. 

General. (51) Name the industries of New Kngland. Tell in which states 
they are carried on. Which industry do you consider to be the most important? 
(52) Make a list of the ten largest cities (see Appendix, pp. iv-vii) in New Eng¬ 
land, the states they are in, and the business they are engaged in. 


Suggestions. (1) Read W hittiers Snow-Bound. (2) Read about lumber¬ 
ing in Chase and Clow’s Stories of Industry, Vol. I. (3) Visit a stone yard, or 
a place where monuments are made, and collect some specimens from the chips in 
the yard. (4) Find blocks of granite and marble in buildings. (5) Make draw¬ 
ings of mackerel, cod, and halibut. You will find pictures of them in the dic¬ 
tionary. (6) Make a collection of cotton, wool, leather, and metals for the school. 
Also make a collection of articles manufactured from them. (7) If cotton is 
worth 7i cents per pound, how much would the 70,000 pounds, that one mill uses 
in a day, be worth? (8) What are the average wages per hour of the hands in 
the Waltham AVatch Factory? The working day there is ten hours long. How 
many watches are made per minute ? Per year? 

lor References to Books and Articles, see Teacher's Book. 



wm p 

«—J*. fci-. 


Copyright, 1898, by E. M. Perry. 


: ■ ' " V • 

Reproduced by permission. 


Fig. G. 


A New England winter scene. Whittier's birthplace, Haverhill, Mass. 

(Described in “Snow-Bound.”) 




VI. MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 


Physiography. — The Appalachian mountain ranges and plateaus, 
with their stores of coal and iron, extend across these states from 
northeast to southwest. Just east of the mountains is a low, hilly 
plateau of hard rock, called the Piedmont 1 plateau. This low, hilly 
region is really a worn-down mountain land like New England ; in 
fact, it represents the very roots of those mountains which rose above 
the sea long before the Coal Period (p. 2). The land slopes seaward, 
and the streams flow in short courses in the same direction. 

Nearer the seacoast the country is a low plain of softer rocks, 
chiefly sands and clays, that were deposited on the sea bottom and 
then raised to form dry land. These 
plains, added to the country not many 
ages ago, are known as the coastal plains 
(Fig. 43). 

From New York to Alabama the line of 
division between the Piedmont plateau and 
the coastal plains is marked by rapids and 
low falls near where streams cross it, and it 
is therefore called the fall line (Fig. 59). There 
are rapids and falls at this place because the 
streams dig more rapidly into the soft layers of 
the coastal plains than into the harder rocks 
of the Piedmont plateau. 

Since the rapids and falls determine the 
place where boats passing upstream must stop, 
and also where there is water power, the earlier 
settlers located their villages on the fall line, as 
the Indians had done before them. Note (Fig. 59) how many large cities 
are on this line. Name them. 

Although at first the Appalachians acted as a serious barrier to 
westward migration (p. 36), at the beginning of the last century 

1 Piedmont means foot of mountain. 

67 



Fig. 59. 


The fall line. Coastal plains 
dotted, Piedmont and other 
sections left white. Cities 
printed in heavy type are 
located along the fall line. 









ATLANTIC STATES 


OF THE 

middle 


Modeled by 

EDWIN E.HOWELL 


SCALE 

O lb 50 Tb \00 

I _O-_ '• 


Fig. 63. 


Where are the lakes found ? Why in that part? 



Fig. H. 


The water escaping here is a small portion of that used for power at Niagara Falls. Yet only 
a very minute portion of the enormous power available is now used. 

68 










Fig. 60. 


The Erie Canal and other water routes of New York and vicinity. 





Fig. 61. 

The locks in the Erie Canal at Lockport. 
















Fig. G2. 

MA p Questtons.—( i) Which states have mountains? (2) Which has none? (3) What influence do 
you think the mountains have upon the industries? (4) What waters help to form the boundary of this 
group of states? (5) Find where natural boundaries separate the states. (6) Measure the length and 
width of this group of states and compare them with the New England States (Fig. 47). Notice that the 
scale of the two maps is different. (7) Which is the largest state? Is it larger or smaller than Maine? 
(See Appendix, p. in.) (8) Name the three bays. Why has a city at the head of one of these bays a better 
ocation than one at the entrance? (9) Name the capital of each state. (10) The capital of the United 
^tates is in the eastern part of the country. Why? Where would a Joetter location be? (11) Name the 
ti\e largest rivers. Into what waters do they flow? Through what states? 





























































































Fig. (>4. 


A View of Niagara Falls. 


09 



















70 


NOBTII AMEBIC A 



many emigrants pushed their way across the mountains. This migra¬ 
tion was greatly aided by the fact that numerous rivers, such as the 
Mohawk, Delaware (Fig. 65), Susquehanna, Potomac, and James, 

flow across a part 
or the whole of the 
mountain system. 
They offered a 
comparatively easy 
route across the 
mountains and 
therefore formed 
gateways to the 
fertile western 
plains be y o nd . 
Trace each of these 
rivers from its 
source to its mouth. 

On the western 
side of the Appa¬ 
lachians there is a 
plateau, sloping 
gently toward the 

. . Ohio and Missis- 

sippi rivers, called the Appalachian plateau. Near the mountains 

in \Y est Virginia and Pennsylvania, the plateau is so deeply cut by 

rivers, and therefore so rocky, that it would probably have attracted 

u few settlers had it not been for the rich coal beds inclosed in its 

s ra a. . The mining of this coal has been greatly aided by the work 

o ie rivers, which have in many cases cut down to the coal beds 
and brought the coal to light (Fig. 7). 

Owing to the fact that the glacier did not spread over the south¬ 
ern part of this group of states (Fig. 9), few lakes and waterfalls are 
found there But they abound in New York and northern New 
Jersey and Pennsylvania, which the glacier did cover. Indeed on 
he boundary of New York is the greatest waterfall in Anierli¬ 
the famous Niagara (Fig. 64). Two of the Great Lakes are also 
partly in New York, and a number of other large lakes are witl in 
its boundaries. Name some of them. See map. Fig. 62. 

In the Middle States, as in New England, the sinking of the land 
has produced numerous large bays and line harbors, through which 


Fig. 05. 

Ihe Delaware Water Gap, where the Delaware cuts through a 

mountain ridge. 



MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 


71 


the tide often reaches far inland. In the Hudson River, for example, 
the tide extends above Albany, and in the several branches of the 
Chesapeake Bay it reaches nearly to the fall line. 

Most of the coast is low and sandy, with a gradual descent into the 
sea, so that bathing is excellent (Fig. 66). Because of this fact and the 
cool sea breezes of summer, the coast is noted for its numerous summer 
resorts, especially near the large cities. 

Climate. 1 he northern part of h«ew \ ork reaches to the 45th 
parallel of latitude. IIow far is that from the equator ? From the 
hoi th pole ? How much nearer the equator is the southern part of 
Virginia? What effect does this have on the crops ? 


S 



Fig. GO. 


A New Jersey beach in summer. 

While the climate of the northern portion of this group of states 
resembles that of New England, the climate of the southern portion 
is much warmer. Its greater warmth is due partly to the lower 
latitude, and partly to the ocean currents. The cold Labrador cur¬ 
rent does not extend south of Cape Cod ; but the Gulf Stream passes 
very near the Virginia coast (Fig. 264, p. 264). 

The climate is so mild in Virginia that sleighing and skating are 
rarely possible, while places near the entrance of Chesapeake Bay — as 
Old Point Comfort and Newport News — are important winter resorts. 
Among the mountains, however, the climate is cooler; and even as far 
south as Virginia and North Carolina there are cool summer resorts on 
the mountain sides. 

Variable winds supply all of these states with thirty or forty 
inches of rain per year, which is sufficient for crops and for dense 
forests. Because of its climate and products, the region is well 













72 


NORTH AMERICA 


fitted to support a dense population; and next we shall see where 
the largest numbers of people are collected, and in what occupations 
they are engaged. 

Forests. —Many of the prominent industries in these states are the 
same as those of New England, I or example, there are extensive forests 
both m the Adiiondack and Appalachian mountains, and upon the 
Appalachian plateau near their western base. In the southern part, 
as in West Virginia, many hardwood trees are found; but in the 
noithern poition both the trees and the methods of lumbering resemble 
those in Maine. Williamsport, in Pennsylvania, is extensively en¬ 
gaged in the lumber business, as Bangor is in Maine. There are also 
many papei mills supplied from the forests, as in Watertown near the 
Adirondacks. 

Ovei most paits of this section the woods have been so wantonly 
destroyed that it is now necessary to protect those that are left. New 
York State has established large forest reservations, and founded a Col¬ 
lege of Forestry at Cornell University in Ithaca. Besides this, some 
large tracts of woodland, called game preserves , are carefully protected by 
certain citizens for the purpose of fishing and hunting at the proper 
season. State laws also protect the game. 

Fish and Oysters. F ishing is a much less important industry 
than in New England. In the bays many sliad are caught. This 
fish swims up the bays and rivers each spring in order to lay its 
eggs in fresh water, where the young remain until they are large 
enough to venture to the sea. 

Oysters are found from Cape Cod to the Rio Grande (Tig. 232, 
p. 229); but one of the best localities for them is Chesapeake Bay, 
where the waters are warm and quiet. FYom this region they are 
collected in great quantities. Some are shipped away fresh in the 
shell, but many are canned, like fruit. Baltimore and Norfolk 
are especially noted for this industry. 

When young, the oysters swim about freely; but after reaching a 
ceitam age, they sink to the bottom, fasten themselves to some solid sub¬ 
stance, like a stone or an oyster shell, and never move from that spot. 
They depend for food upon what is brought to their mouths by the 
incoming and outflowing tides. Oysters prefer comparatively shallow 
water and can sometimes be picked up by hand from a boat; but usually 
they must be dragged or dredged up with a long-handled rake. Small 
steamers and sailing boats are used for gathering them. So profitable is 
t le industry that in many places there are private oyster beds, or “plan 
tations, which are carefully protected. 


MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 


73 


Agriculture 


There is more good farm land in these states than in New Eng¬ 
land, and therefore agriculture is a more important industry. The 
low, level, coastal plains, the gently undulating Piedmont plateau, 
and nearly all of New York State, except the Catskill and Adiron¬ 
dack mountains, are dotted with farms. Also in the valleys of the 
Allegheny plateau, and in the broad valleys between the Appalachian 
ridges, there is much farming land. In fact, there were farms in the 
latter valleys even before there were settlers in the prairie states 
farther west. The numerous large cities call for quantities of vege¬ 
tables and small fruit, and so there is much truck farming. Virginia 
raises many early vegetables for northern markets. 

Dairying. — Many farmers turn their attention chiefly to dairy¬ 
ing; and, although butter and cheese are made in every state in the 
Union, this work 

is so important in 
New York that it 
is described at 
this point. 

The number of 
cows in a dairy 
herd (Fig. 67) 
varies from a dozen 
to several score. 

In summer they 
are usually allowed 
to graze in pastures, 
but during the win¬ 
ter they are fed in large barns. Twice each day they are milked, and the 
milk may be sent to a neighboring city to be sold by the quart, as in New 
England (p. 58), or it may be kept for butter. In the latter case it is 
placed in a rapidly revolving machine, called a separator, which separates 
the cream from the milk. The cream is then churned until butter is 
made. The skimmed milk, left after the cream is separated, and the 
buttermilk, left after the butter is made, are fed to hogs, and used in 
other ways. 



Fig. (57. 

A dairy herd in New York, on the way to the barn in the 


evening. 


The best cheese is made from fresh milk; but the process is 
too difficult to be described here. Utica, on the Mohawk River, 
is an Important cheese market; and scattered all over New York 
are small cheese and butter factories, or creameries. These are of 

7—A Q 










74 


NORTH AMERICA 


great value to the surrounding farmers, since they furnish a ready 
market for the milk, some of which is brought to the creameries 
on trains. 

Tobacco. — Among the plants which the early explorers found in 
America was the tobacco. Much to the astonishment of the Euro¬ 
peans, the savages smoked the dried tobacco leaves in pipes. How¬ 
ever, the newcomers quickly learned to smoke also, and tobacco 
soon became one of the leading products shipped to Europe. Now 

its use extends throughout the 
world. So much tobacco is now con¬ 
sumed that, although produced in 
many countries, tens of thousands 
of men in the United States alone 
are employed in raising and pre¬ 
paring it for the market. 

The climate of most parts of New 
England and New York is too severe 
for this plant; but large quantities 
are raised in the Connecticut Valley, 
and in the valleys of southern New 
York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio (Fig. 
216, p. 223). However, the state 
most noted for its production is Vir¬ 
ginia. In the vicinity of Lynch¬ 
burg and Danville, where much 
tobacco manufacturing is carried on, 
immense quantities are raised ; and 
Richmond and Petersburg, on the fall line (Fig. 59), are among 
the great tobacco markets of the world. Find these cities. 

The plant, which grows to a height of about three and a half feet, has 
thick leaves which are large and broad (Fig. 68), somewhat like those of 
the pieplant or rhubarb. The leaves, which are the valuable part of the 
plant, are plucked in the fall, hung in a room to dry, and then made into 
some form for use. 

Fruits and Vegetables.— Roth the fertile soil and the climate of 
these states are well suited to fruit raising. Nearly every farmer 
raises some fruit. But the sections near water have the best climate 
foi it, because the water causes the air to be cooler in summer 
and warmer in winter. One of the most noted fruit belts is the 










MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 75 

( hautauqua grape belt on the southern shores of Lake Erie in 
western New York. 

Apples form an important fruit crop in New York, being grown 
in many parts of the state, but especially along the southern shores 
ol Lake Ontario. So much fruit is cultivated in New York that the 
nursery business , or that of raising young fruit trees and bushes to 
sell, is greatly developed. One of the principal centers for this busi¬ 
ness is Rochester. 

On the coastal plain and Piedmont plateau of eastern New 
Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia, grapes, berries, especially 
strawberries, apples, and other fruits flourish. Aside from fruit, such 
common vegetables as potatoes, tomatoes, beans, and sweet corn are 
raised in all parts of these states. 

All of these fruits and vegetables are eaten fresh during the proper 
season, being used in such quantities that they are sent to the cities on 
fast trains, and even in special cars. They are prepared for the table in 
other ways also; for instance, the juice of grapes is made into wine, and 
that of apples into vinegar. 

The canning of fruits and vegetables for winter use has become an 
important industry in several cities, as in Baltimore and Wilmington. 
Many farmers are engaged almost entirely in raising fruits and vegetables 
for this purpose. Probably as many peaches, berries, tomatoes, etc., are 
put up in cans as are eaten in the fresh state. The tin cans in which they 
are preserved are to be seen in every grocery store. 


Many other crops, such as hay and grain, are raised in the Middle 
Atlantic States; but a description of these will be given in connec¬ 
tion with the states further west, where such crops are produced on 
a much larger scale (pp. 121-12b). 

This farming not only supplies food to the residents of the cities, 
but it also furnishes many of them with occupation. The marketmen 
and grocerymen, for instance, receive a profit when they sell vege¬ 
tables, whether fresh or canned. The workmen in the flour mills 
and canneries are also supplied with work by the farmers. Many 
other factories are established because of farming; for example, 
the agricultural implement factory at Auburn, AW. (p. 82). 
Even much of the lumbering and mining is done because the farmers 
need furniture, plows, etc. Resides this, supplying goods needed 
by the farmers forms an important part of the business in many 
cities, like Lancaster, Penn., which is in the midst of a rich farming 
country. 


76 


NORTH AMERICA 


Mining 

The products from underground are far more important in these 
states than in New England. 

Salt — One of these is salt, a mineral which every person must have. 
In the early days salt springs were discovered at the point where Syra¬ 
cuse stands, and that city owed its early growth to those springs. Little 
salt is now produced there; but immense quantities of soda are made of 
brine obtained from the beds of salt near by. 

These beds of salt were deposited in the sea which covered this region 
before the Coal Period, and were then buried beneath layers of rock. They 
lie deep down in the earth in the region south of Syracuse and Rochester, 
and from them salt is obtained at a number of places. In fact, New 
York produces more salt than any other state. Kansas produces a large 
amount. 

When in the earth, salt is hard, somewhat like coal, and must be 
obtained in one of two ways. In one case a small hole is bored to it and 
water allowed to run down and dissolve it; then the brine is pumped up 
and the water is evaporated by heat until only the salt is left. In the 
other case, a deep hole, or shaft, large enough for men to pass up and 
down, is dug down to the salt; then lumps of salt are broken oft and 
hoisted to the surface. A salt mine is a beautiful sight with its clear, 
crystal-white walls and clean floor. 

Coal. — Although there is little water power south of the region 
formerly covered by the glacier, there is coal — an excellent sub¬ 
stitute. The coal swamps that existed millions of years ago (p. 2) 
stretched westward from the ancient Appalachian Mountains beyond 
the Mississippi River. In some places the coal has been entirely 
washed away. In others, it is sometimes found close to the sur¬ 
face and sometimes several hundred feet beneath it. Most of 
this is soft or bituminous coal, which is mined in enormous quan¬ 
tities in the neighborhood of Pittsburg and Allegheny. 

When the plains and plateaus that contain the coal beds were 
raised above the sea, they were nearly everywhere lifted without 
much folding. This was the case in western Pennsylvania, Ohio, In¬ 
diana, and Illinois; but mountains were formed in central Pennsyl¬ 
vania, and there the rocks, including the coal beds, were folded. 
During the long ages that these mountains have been exposed to 
the weather, the mountain tops have been greatly lowered. Also 
rivers have carved out deep valleys, and thus most of the coal in 
that section has been washed away and carried to the sea. In two 


MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 


77 


or three places, however, as near \\ ilkesbarre and Scranton, beds 
of hard, or anthracite , coal remain. It is to this coal that these cities 
owe their importance. In that mountain region the coal beds were 
so deeply folded that neither the weather nor the rivers has been 
able to remove them; and they remain, therefore, as remnants 
of much larger beds, preserved because of tlieir protected posi¬ 
tion. 


Anthracite coal was first made in the same way as soft coal. Had it 
not been subjected to the pressure caused by the mountain folding, it 



Fig. 69. 

Mouth of a coal mine, Allegany County. (Md. Geol. Survey.) 


would doubtless have formed a bituminous coal; but the pressure has 
changed it by driving off the gases that form a part of all v r oody matter. 
These changes have made the coal harder and more difficult to burn; but 
since it gives forth a more intense heat than bituminous coal and burns 
with less smoke, it is preferred for some purposes, such as heating and 
cooking. Throughout New England and many parts of the Middle 
Atlantic States, anthracite is the only coal used for these purposes. 

Most of the anthracite beds lie far below the surface, and deep shafts 
have to be sunk to reach them. From the sides of such a shaft, tunnels 
(Fig. 60) are dug into the beds, and from these the coal is removed. Usu- 

















78 


NORTH AMERICA 



ally there are several beds of coal, with thick layers of rock between them, 
and the shaft extends downward through them all, with tunnels reaching 
out from it at each level of the mineral (Fig. 70). In a large mine one 

may travel for days 
through miles and 
miles of dark tun¬ 
nels.. 

The workmen 
break the coal with 
the aid of steam 
drills and picks, 
and they often 
furnish their own 
light by means of 
lamps fastened to 
their caps. After 
the coal is broken 
loose, it is placed 
in small cars, 
drawn to the shaft 
Diagram to illustrate how coal is dug out of the beds in tunnels, by mules, 01 * by 
and raised to the surface through shafts. ’ electricity, and 

then hoisted to the 

surface by steam. The mules are kept underground for months, being 
fed and allowed to sleep in stables cut out of solid coal. 


Oil and Gas. — In the plateau along the northwestern border 
of the Appalachian Mountains, two fuels, oil and gas, are found. 
1 etroleum, as the oil is generally called, means “ rock oil, ” a name 
which suggests its origin. 


Ages ago, when these layers of rock were being deposited on the ocean 
Hoor, countless numbers of animals and plants, dying and dropping to the 
bottom were imprisoned and deeply buried. These plant and animal 
fossils then slowly decayed, forming oil and gas. Later, the oil and gas 
were stored in the earth in the pores between the grains of sandstone and 
other rocks. Very nearly the same kind of oil is now manufactured from 

si refuse, and nearly the same kind of gas rises from plants that are 
decaying m swampy places. 


As soon as an opening is made through the rock by boring into 
it, the gas, which is associated with petroleum, rushes forth, and is 
conducted away in pipes, often to distant, places. Thousands of 
homes in Buffalo, Pittsbukg, and other places are heated with 
natural gas ; and in many factories, too, the gas is used for fuel 

Petroleum also flows out from the borings or oil welh; but fre- 





MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 70 

quently it must be pumped out. Near the oil wells cities have grown 
up, such as Bradford and Oil City in Pennsylvania, and Olean 
in New York. After being taken from the earth, the petroleum is 
stored in large tanks and then relined (Fig. 71). In its natural state 
it is a thick, dark yellow or reddish yellow fluid ; but in the refinery 
it is changed so that the greater part of it becomes clear, colorless, 
kerosene oil. Benzine, naphtha, and gasoline are also made from it. 
1 lie thick substances left after the refining are used in making dyes 
of various kinds, machine oil, vaseline, and paraffin. 

No region in the world furnishes so much oil as western Pennsylvania, 
A\ est \ irginia, and eastern Ohio. The only section of the world that ap¬ 
proaches it is in Russia, near the Caspian Sea. The oil business, which is 
one of the great industries of the country, is in the hands of the Standard 



Fig. 71. 

Oil tanks in an oil refinery. 

Oil Company, which has absorbed a large number of the small dealers. 
From the wells the oil is led to the refineries in pipes many miles long, and 
the company owns immense numbers of special tank cars for carrying the 
kerosene all over the country, and steamers for shipping it to foreign lands. 
Watch for one of the tank cars and describe it. 

Iron Ore. — Pennsylvania and West Virginia enjoy the advan¬ 
tage of having within their own borders an abundance, not only of 
coal, but also of oil and gas for fuel. Iron ore is also found in Penn¬ 
sylvania, Virginia, and other states. Thus both the raw material and 





















80 


NORTH AMERICA 


3 manufacturing it into useful articles are found 
almost side by side. Of course the cities of the neighboring states, 
such as New York and New Jersey, are also able to obtain these 
materials. 



This is very important, since iron is the most valuable metal for manu- 
factming that exists. Tike coal, this iron ore was prepared long ago, 
though in a very different manner, as follows. Small quantities of iron 
exist in many minerals and rocks, the red and yellow colors of many soils 
being due to it. As water slowly seeps through the rocks it dissolves the 
non, much as it would dissolve salt or sugar if those substances were there. 
In some places, where the conditions have been favorable, the water has 
hi ought quantities of the iron to one place and there deposited it, forming * 
beds, or veins of iron ore, and it is these that are now being mined. 

Sometimes the beds lie very deep, and again they are so near the surface 
that the iron ore is dug out of great open pits, as stone is taken from quar- 
lies. In appearance, iron ore is sometimes a hard, black mineral, some¬ 
times a soft, loose, yellowish or reddish brown earth. It is not iron at all, 

any more than wheat is flour; it is 
only the iron ore mineral out of which 
iron may be made by a great deal of 
work. 


Iron and Iron Goods. —It is 

easy to see that one of the princi¬ 
pal industries of this section must 
be connected with iron. Two 
materials, coke and limestone , are 
used with the iron ore to reduce it 
to the metal. The coke is made 
from bituminous coal, and the 
limestone is obtained in quarries. ' 

lo obtain coke, coal is placed in 
stone or brick furnaces, called coke 
ovens , built in such a manner that 
very little air can reach the coal, 
which is then set on fire. IVIany of 
,, _ , the gases that form a part of coal 

aTbr vv M - burn ! d up or driven out - 0ne of these gases is the same 
as that Which is used for street lights and for illuminating houses. So 

nii 6 au ' l . s ! et . “y the ovens that not all substances in the coal are burnt. 
m , Pait left isi the very light, porous coke which can then be burned and 
ade to furnish intense heat, if supplied with plenty of air. 


Fig. 72. 
Blast furnace. 


In reducing 


iron ore to iron, more coke is used than ore, so that 




MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 


81 


it is an advantage to have the mines of coal and iron ore near each 
other. The coke, iron ore, and limestone are all placed together in 
a tower-like structure called a blastfurnace (Fig. 72), so named 
because a blast of air is forced through it to produce a strong draught 
while the coke is burning. 



Such gieat heat melts the ore and limestone ; and the iron, being 
heaviest, sinks to the bottom of the fiery hot liquid. The limestone, and 
those elements of the ore 
that are not iron, rise to 
the surface, forming slag 
— a worthless substance that 
is drawn off through an 
opening in the furnace and 
thrown away. Through a 
lower opening, the iron is 
run off into trenches made of 
sand on a sand floor. 

There is one main trench 
with numerous side branches, 
and each of these has still 
smaller branches connected 
with it, as in Figure 73. 

When the molten iron cools, 
the little bars of iron, called 
pig iron , are attached to a larger one. These rough bars, which may 
be easily lifted, are then broken off and shipped away to be made into 
thousands of different articles. 

Some iron goods, such as stoves and the iron parts of your desk, are 
nothing more than this pig iron melted and cast, in molds, into the shape 
that is desired. This is cast iron, which is so brittle that it easily breaks 
under a heavy blow. Other materials, such as knife blades, boiler plates, 
rails for railways, and watch springs, are made of steel. This also is made 
of pig iron, though after it has been greatly hardened and strengthened 
by an expensive process. 

Wrought iron, a third kind, is used where it is necessary for the metal 
to bend and yet be tough, as in iron wire. 


Fig. 73. 

Molten iron running out of a blast furnace into 
trenches, where it cools to form pig iron. 


Almost every city in the Middle Atlantic States is engaged in 
iron work of some kind, some in making iron and steel out of ore, 
others in manufacturing iron and steel goods. For example, in New 
York State, Buffalo manufactures car wheels, machinery, and 
many other articles. It has nearly four thousand manufactories, 
many of them making iron goods; and in New York City almost 
all kinds of iron goods are made. Iron and steel goods, bicycles, 















82 


NORTH AMERICA 


etc., are manufactured in Syracuse ; stoves are made in Albany 
and Troy ; and there are iron foundries in Binghamton, Elmira, 
and Schenectady. 



In Pennsylvania, Philadelphia manufactures steel ships, cars, 
and hundreds of other iron goods ; Pittsburg and Allegheny 
make steel and iron goods of nearly every kind ; and Scran¬ 
ton, Reading, 
Harrisburg, 
Erie, Altoona, 
and a score of 
other places have 
furnaces, foun¬ 
dries, and machine 
shops for iron 
manufacturing. 
In New Jersey, 
Jersey City, 
Newark, Cam¬ 
den, and Hobo¬ 
ken manufacture 
iron goods; in 
Delaware, Wil- 
mington is noted 
for its cars and 
steel ships; in 
Maryland, Balti¬ 
more, like Phila¬ 
delphia and New 
Fig. 74 . York, has a great 

A potter’s wheel in the works of the Trenton Potteries Company. Variety of iron 

manufactures. 

Wheeling in West Virginia and Roanoke in Virginia are also 
engaged in iron manufacturing. Almost any article of iron that you 
might name is made in these cities. 


I he importance of even a single manufactory is proved by the follow¬ 
ing facts : In 1899, at D. M. Osborne Company’s works, Auburn N.Y. 
where farming implements, such as mowers, rakes, reapers, and harrows 
are made, over 2700 men are employed, making one complete imple- 

2 tSi 40 seconds. Each year these men and their families consume 
about 9000 barrels of flour, 62,000 bushels of potatoes, 200,000 dozen eg-s 




MIDDLE ATLANTIC ST A TES 


83 


1,400,000 quarts of milk, 375,000 pounds of butter, 1,300,000 pounds 
o meat, besides much coffee, tea, and sugar. Since they also need to buy 
clothes, shoes, etc., this one factory, by furnishing the money for all these 
purchases, helps to support farmers, storekeepers, shoe manufactories 
railways, and many other industries ; but since it is the farmer who buys 
the implements, it is he who has caused the factory to be needed. One is 
really dependent upon the other. 


Glass, Pottery, Bricks, etc. — Three other mineral products are 
especially worthy of note. Glass is manufactured at and near 
Pittsburg, Wheeling, and many other places, especially where 
natural gas furnishes cheap fuel. In the vicinity of the former 
cit} are sands which, when melted and mixed with other substances, 
make an excellent quality of glass. Pittsburg is the greatest cen¬ 
ter for plate glass in the country. 

In and near Trenton, N.J., there is a kind of clay which 
may be manufactured into pottery of a very high grade, and pot¬ 
tery making has become an important industry in that city. To 
make such earthenware the clay is shaped by skillful workmen into 
cups, saucers, vases, etc. (Fig. 74), and then baked until it is hard. 


So many bricks are used for building, that brick yards are found in 
the neighborhood of nearly all cities. Bricks are made of clay, which is 
pressed into the brick shape when damp, then dried, and finally baked. 
In this process some of the grains melt, so that, when cooled again, they 
cling together like stone. The clays near Philadelphia, and the great 
clay beds of the Hudson valley above New York City, supply an abun¬ 
dance of brick for these great cities. 


Largest Cities and Chief Shipping Routes 


Location of New York City. — The greatest of all the cities of the 
United States is New York, which contains about three and a half 
million inhabitants, and is second oidy to London among the great 
cities of the world. 'There are several other large cities in its imme¬ 
diate vicinity, as Jersey City, Newark, Elizabeth, Paterson, 
and Hoboken (Fig. 81), all across the Hudson River in New Jersey, 
but, so far as their business relations are concerned, forming a part 
of New York City. Before its union with New York, the great city 
of Brooklyn, on Long Island, was fourth among the cities of the 
country. 


84 


NORTH AMERICA 


Such a vast collection of people in one section is due chiefly to 
the excellent harbor and the ease with which goods may be sent 
westward by water and by rail, making this the principal shipping 
point in America. More than half of all the foreign trade of the 
United States is carried on through this port. 

The tide reaches up the Hudson above Albany, and the Erie 
Canal extends from there westward to Buffalo (Fig. 60), on Lake 
Erie, a distance of 350 miles. From that point one is able to go by 
way of the lakes to Cleveland, Detroit, Chicago, and Duluth. Thus, 



Fig. 75. 


Brooklyn Bridge in New York City. 

by the aid of this canal, New York City is connected by water with 
a vast inland territory which is highly productive and thickly 
populated. By sea New York is connected with different parts 

of the world, and steamships are constantly entering and leaving 
its harbor. 

Erie Canal. This canal, which is over 350 miles long, follows 
the easiest route westward from the Eastern States, the route used 
by the Indians before the white men came. Since the canal is only 
seventy feet wide and seven feet deep, all freight coming from the 
West in lake steamers, and intended for the canal, must be unloaded 
at Buffalo, and placed in canal boats. These clumsy-looking boats 
are made with broad, flat bottoms, in order that they may carry 
heavy loads without sinking deep into the water. They are drawn 
by horses or mules that walk along the tow path at the side. 

Since the Erie Canal was completed, in 1825, the cities along 
its route and on the Hudson River have attained great impor- 













MIDDLE ATLANTIC ST A TES 





tance (Fig 1 . 60 ). dhey all have manufacturing industries and use 
the canal for obtaining such raw materials as coal and iron, and for 
shipping away the manufactured goods. Notice especially Lock- 
port, situated where there is a very decided slope in the land, neces- 



Fkj. 7(>. 


Docks at Buffalo in 1828 . The city at that time had less than 8000 population. 

sitating many locks (in which the boats are raised or lowered from 
one level to another) in the canal ; hence the name (Fig. 61). The 
State of New York is now expending over #100,000,000 in enlarging 
this canal. 

Several other canals have been built in New York, as may be seen in 
Figure 60: point them out and explain their importance. The smaller 
lakes and the Hudson River are also made use of as a part of the 
canal system; but upon these larger bodies of water a number of canal 
boats is hrmly lashed together and taken in tow by a small steamer or 
tug boat. 


Railways of New York. —Canals furnish a very slow method of 
conveyance ; consequently, soon after the use of steam was dis¬ 
covered, men began to build railways. The New York Central 
Railway, one of the most important in the United States, extends 
from the very heart of New York City up the Hudson to Albany 
(Fig. 81), where it connects with Boston trains. From Albany 
westward to Buffalo the route is almost the same as that of’the 
Erie Canal. 

Several other railways connect New York with the West, 
crossing the Appalachians at various points, some passing through 
Buffalo, which is a great railway center, as well as an important 
lake port (Fig. 77). At Buffalo immense quantities of grain, flour, 
lumber, and iron from the West are transferred from lake vessels to 










tings) 


NEWFANE 


wlstoti 


mmm 


niagar 


GOAT 

ISLAND 


8UCKH0RN JS~f 


G R AND A SJfA N D 


Will lams vlli 


ruh-rAi 


Fortterii 


Steamer Lines 
to Principal '/ 


BUFFALO 

AND VHTMTV 

Railroads: _ 

Electric Railways: , . 

Canals; 


££Nn, 


,CA2 INOVIi 

;K PARK 


S MILES TO 1 INCH 


M.-N. WORKS 


Fig. 77. 


Map showing location of Buffalo and vicinity 

86 













































































MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 


87 


canal boats or railways, while coal and manufactured goods are 
shipped from the East westward. 

The Niagara Falls (Fig. 64), about twenty miles away, supply Buffalo 
with a great abundance of electric power. All the street cars are run by 
it, and many factories besides. Electric cars, run by Niagara power, go 
from Buffalo to Lockpokt and to the city of Niagara Falls. The 
latter place has become an im¬ 
portant manufacturing city be¬ 
cause of the power furnished by 
the immense Niagara cataract. 

Since the Hudson River is 
about a mile in width at its 
mouth, most of the railways 
reaching New York from the 
West and South cannot enter 
the city. They have their ter¬ 
minals just across the river at 
Hoboken or Jersey City in 
New Jersey. Because of this 
the latter city is one of the 
great railway centers of the country. From these points passengers and 
freight are conveyed across the river in ferries (Fig. 78), whole trains often 
being taken upon one boat. 

New York City. —New York City is not only the greatest shipping 
point in North America, but, together with the neighboring cities, 
the greatest manufacturing center as well. The place from which 
goods are most easily shipped in ;ill directions is, for that very reason, 
one of the best places for manufacturing. Nearly every manufactured 
article that human beings need is made in or near New York ; but 
one of the most extensive industries is the manufacture of clothing. 
Cotton and woolen goods are sent from the New England factories 
to New York to be made into such articles as dresses, men's suits, and 
underclothing, and then shipped away. Large buildings, in which hun¬ 
dreds of men and women are employed, are given up to this one work. 

Iron and coal are so near at hand that the manufacture of iron 
goods is another great industry. The refining of petroleum is a 
third, the oil being led in pipes from the oil fields of western Penn¬ 
sylvania to great refineries in New Jersey, near the metropolis. 1 he 
refining of sugar is another immense business in and near New 
York, as at Jersey City and Brooklyn ; and there are hundreds 
of other manufacturing industries. More books, magazines, and 
newspapers are published in New \ ork than in any other city 










88 


NORTH AMERICA 


i 



m the Union ; and so much wealth is collected there that the New 
\oik banks largely control the great business undertaking’s of all 
parts of the country. 

At the southern end of Manhattan Island, on which much of New 
\ork is built, there are about eight square miles of the city given 

up almost exclusively to the whole¬ 
sale trade. For the sake of space 
many of the great office build¬ 
ings are from eight to thirty- 
two stories in height. In this 
part of New York are collected 
such goods as are manufactured 
in the city or are brought to it 
from all parts of the world. Mer¬ 
chants in Denver, Louisville, St. 
Paul, Galveston, Indianapolis, and 
other cities, purchase these goods 
for their stores. In return the 
Western and Southern people send 
grain, meat, sugar, etc., to this 
gieat city. Thus we daily depend 
upon one another for our living, 
even though our homes are far 
apart. 

The contrast between life in New 
York City and upon a farm (p. 121) 
is striking. 

lamilies whose homes are in the 
city do not usually occupy a, whole 
house; but many live in large build- 
ings, in which hundreds of other 
Flr 79 people also live. Such a structure, 

The Park Row Building, New York City 7 apartlnent MHing, is com- 

(Copyrighted by Geo. P. Hall & Son lnon \y ^ 10ni Slx to eight stories high, 

N. Y., 1900 ) and is so arranged that one family 

n n , occupies only a small part of one 

oor ov a flat. Other families live above and below, as well as on each 
side, being separated by only a few inches of brick or boards. 

Since land is so valuable, sometimes costing scores of dollars a square 
foot there is commonly neither front nor back yard. q 

In the poorer sections of the city, the people are even more densely 
crowded. Some of the children have never seen the country, and scarcely 









MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 


89 



any birds, trees, or grass, except possibly in one of the city parks. In 
these sections there are many foreigners from all the nations of the earth. 

lo escape the necessity of living in crowded city homes, tens of 
thousands of men have their dwellings in suburban towns or country 
homes, from ten to forty miles from their places of business. They 
spend from one to three hours daily traveling back and forth. A part of 

the time they ride upon elevated railways that are built in the street, 
two, three, and four stories 
above the ground, and sup¬ 
ported by iron columns (Fig. 

80). 

How different all this is 
from the country, where only 
two or three houses are to 
be seen at a time! Where 
sunlight and fresh air enter 
one’s home from all sides of 
the building ! Where there 
is plenty of room to play, 
with green grass, large trees, 
and singing birds in the 
yard! No wonder that 
people living in great cities 
are anxious to visit the 
country, the mountains, the 
lakes, and the seashore, 
during a few weeks in the 
summer. 


Largely owing to the 
enormous population of 
New York City, with its 
i mmense manufacturing 1 

O 


Fig. 80 . 

An elevated railway in New York. 


interests and great wealth, New York is called the Empire State, 
ranking first in the Union in population, manufacturing, commerce, 
and wealth (Figs. 206 and 236). 


New York State is prominent for its educational institutions also. In 
New York City is Columbia University; and at Ithaca, on Lake Cayuga, 
in the central part of the state, is Cornell University. Both of these 
should be associated with Princeton University in New Jersey, and Har¬ 
vard and Yale universities in New England, as among the most important 
educational institutions in the country. In Virginia is the very old and 
well-known University of Virginia. Besides this, north of New York 
City, on the Hudson Biver, is West Point, the place where the govern- 

8—A Q 
















.Lake Georjge 


-S Rome 


HAMP 


iVUtlea 


Sara toga> Springs 


SHORE 


‘JBerutington 


Schenectady 


sA&mi 


Springfield 


lam ton 


Kingston 


Hart fora 


New London, 




... jo^S- 

Vo "" " 

to euROP£^. N _!9i — — 


mth Bethle. 


^Ti'XW't* 


Steading 


l^renton 

JERSE 


Pliilaj fiXjfl 


> Atlantic City 


veY ^ 

Delaware I , 
\ Day §/t 


SCALE Of MILES 


M -N.WORKS 


Fig. 81. 

New York City and vicinity. 
90 




























































leiphia 


■ham be rs burg 


> E W 


Washington 

Alexandria' 


Richmond 


i West Foin 


Suffolk 


Fig. 82. 

Map to show the location of Baltimore and Washington. 

01 


JERSEY 


Doter 

\ Delaware 


Bay A 


Fredericksburg 

L- 

«■ r ± o. ygt 


f > ' 

W / / / 

t/ / / 

//*/ / 

*7 *7 <?/ 

J/*/ / 

^7*/ / 

7// # 


s—\ / / / ✓ 

/ // ✓ 

IP 

/y //s' 


\^%£0<ri'aTUs 
Pt %gt urt A x L ANTIC 

Henry 

J -— s /V ' * n '• 


.A' \N 
0 \\ \\ 


O C E A N 


W° V v \ X 


^•9 


^/Eaporhiy^ _ ^ / _ */ 

"JT^jT. .Ft • “Fi‘ ir^o—-r ~r- * - 


SOU 


SCALE O' MiLfa 


M.N WQ^kS 












































92 


NORTH AMERICA 


ment school for the training of array officers is located. Also at Pough¬ 
keepsie is Vassar, one of the great colleges for women, like Smith and 
Wellesley in Massachusetts, and Bryn Mawr near Philadelphia. 

Philadelphia and its Chief Shipping Routes. — The leading cities 
southwest of New York are located along the fall line. Name them 
as far as Richmond (Fig. 59). The greatest is Philadelphia, which 
is the third in size in the Union, containing about 1,300,000 inhab¬ 
itants. As in the case of New York, other important cities are near 



One of our great war ships ready to be launched. 


by, as Trenton and Camden, New Jersey, Chester and Norris¬ 
town, Pennsylvania, and Wilmington, Delaware. Water deep 
enough for ocean vessels extends as far inland as Philadelphia, and 
its nearness to the coal fields renders it a great shipping point for 
coal, which is sent to New England and the Southern States. 

As in the case of New York, great railway lines enter Philadelphia 
connecting it not only with the other cities of Pennsylvania, such 
as Harrisburg, the capital, and Pittsburg, but also with the 
North, South, and West. Among these lines are the Pennsylvania 
Railway, and the Baltimore and Ohio, two of the greatest of 




















MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 


93 


the country. There are also many steamship lines from Philadel¬ 
phia (Fig. 81). 

A number of canals has been built in Pennsylvania, as in New 
York ; but owing to the mountainous nature of the country, there 



is no canal connection between Philadelphia and the Great Lakes. 
Iherefore Erie, the city in Pennsylvania which would most naturally 
compare with Buffalo, is much smaller; but being near the coal 
and iron, it is an important manufacturing city. 

Philadelphia and the neighboring city of Camden, being good 
shipping points, are also great manufacturing centers. The coal and 
iron near by lead to the manufacture of cars, heavy machinery, and 
steel ships (Fig. 83) at Phila¬ 
delphia and Wilmington. 

Grear quantities of clothing are 
also made in Philadelphia, as in 
Boston and New York; and in 
carpet manufacture Philadelphia 
is the most important city in the 
country. 


Philadelphia is called the Quaker 
City, having been founded by Wil¬ 
liam Penn and other Quakers, many 
of whose descendants still live there. 

It was the home of Benjamin Frank¬ 
lin, and for a number of years, before 
Washington was built, it was the 
capital of the United States. Inde¬ 
pendence Hall is still preserved, in 
which the Declaration of Independence was made and the Constitution of 
the United States was drawn up. The leading educational institution 
there is the University of Pennsylvania. 


Fia. 8t. 

Independence Hall, Philadelphia. 


Baltimore. —At the head of Chesapeake Bay, in Maryland, is the 
beautiful city of Baltimore, the sixth in size in the United States. 
Since it has a good harbor, and is connected with the West by rail¬ 
ways (Fig. 82), and also has access to the coal fields of Pennsylvania 
and West Virginia, Baltimore has become a noted manufacturing city 
and shipping port, like Boston, Philadelphia, and New York. Like 
them, also, it has a multitude of manufacturing interests. 

Baltimore is the seat of Johns Hopkins University ; and a few miles 







94 


NORTH AMERICA 



south, at Annapolis, is the United States Naval Academy, which prepares 
officers for the navy, as West Point educates men for the army. 

District of Columbia. — Southwest of Baltimore, on the Potomac 
River, in the District of Columbia, is the beautiful city of Wash¬ 
ington, our national capital (Fig. 85). When first set aside, this 
district was near the center of the settled part of the country. 

Washington is unlike other cities in two respects. In the first 
place, since there was a certainty that it would one day be very 
large, it was carefully planned, with wide streets and many parks. 


Fig. 85. 

The National Capitol, at Washington. 

In the second place, the inhabitants are not, chiefly interested, as 
m other large cities, in manufacturing and commerce. Here reside 
the President and Ins cabinet, members of Congress, foreign ambas¬ 
sadors, and other representatives of the great nations of the world. 
Besides these there are about twenty thousand men and women en¬ 
gaged in the work of the different departments of the government. 
The chief buildings, therefore, are not factories and private office 
buildings, but great government buildings (Fig. 85). 

Richmond and Norfolk. — Richmond, the largest city of Virginia 

is at the head of tide water on the James River. It is, therefore an 
important shipping point, as is also Norfolk on the coast. What 
other cities are in this vicinity ? Name the rivers of the state which 
cut through some of the Appalachian ranges. It was along one of 













MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 


95 


these routes, through Cumberland Gap, that the early settlers passed 
to found the states of Kentucky and Tennessee. The water gaps 
have made it possible for railways to connect the iron and coal mines 
of Virginia and West Virginia with the coast, so that several of the 
coast cities are very important shipping points, especially for coal. 

More than half of the inhabitants of Virginia are engaged in 
agriculture, and farm products are, therefore, important articles for 
transportation. One of the most fertile farming sections in the 
country is the limestone valley of the Shenandoah, in which the 
famous Luray Cave and Natural Bridge are situated. Locate these 
(Fig. 62). Richmond has already been mentioned as a leading 
market for tobacco ; and Norfolk is a great shipping point for 
cotton. 


QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 

Review Questions and Topics.— (1) Describe the physiography of these 
states: — the Appalachian Mountains; the Piedmont plateau; the coastal plains; 
the fall line and its importance; the effect of the mountain barrier on westward 
migration ; the effect of the glacier; the coast line. ('2) Tell about the climate: 

— its variations, and their effects on crops and seashore resorts. (3) Tell about 
the forests: — where they are ; what trees they contain; cities; national forests. 
(4) What fish are found along the coast? (5) Describe the oyster fishing. 
(G) What cities are noted for their oyster industry ? (7) Where is farming carried 
on? What kinds? (8) Describe dairying. (9) Describe the tobacco industry : 

— the first use of the weed; where raised; at what cities manufactured; the 

tobacco plant; uses to which it is put. (10) Tell about fruit raising: — where 
carried on; kinds; uses to which each is put; cities that are greatly benefited 
by the industry. (11) State how farming and other industries are dependent on 
one another. (12) dell about salt: — how formed;, where found; how obtained. 
(13) State what you can about coal: — tell how coal was formed; how the two kinds 
differ; why some anthracite is left; to what uses it is put; how it is mined; the 
cities it has helped to locate; how the miners live. (14) Tell the story of petroleum 
and natural gas : — where found ; how obtained ; to what uses put. (15) Do the 
same for iron ore. (1G) Describe the process of obtaining pig iron. (17) In what 
three forms is iron used ? Mention some of the articles made of each. (18) Name 
the principal cities engaged in the iron manufacture. Find each on the map. 
(19) In what ways are the farmers and the employees of the factory at Auburn of 
use to one another? (20) Tell about each of the other kinds of manufacturing 
mentioned. (21) For what is each qf the cities important? Find each on the 
map. (22) What large cities are near New York ? (23) By what water route are 

New York and Albany connected? (24) New York and Buffalo? (25) Describe 

the Erie Canal: —its value; how boats pass over it; the cities it has helped to 
locate. (26) Why has Buffalo grown so large ? (27) Jersey City? (28) Describe 
New York City:—its location; how it is connected with other sections; the in¬ 
dustries; its influence upon other cities; how the people live; how they travel 
about; how their life differs from life in the country. (29) What universities are 
mentioned? Where is each? (30) Tell about Philadelphia: —why it has be- 


96 


NORTH AMERICA 


come so large; cities near by; other cities; other facts mentioned. (31) For 
what is Baltimore noted? (32) What cities near by? (33) What city in Dis¬ 
trict of Columbia ? What is the principal occupation of the inhabitants? 

Review by States: New lork (Y.F.).— (1) Where are the mountains? 
(2) What are their names? (3) What are the industries there? Why not agri¬ 
culture among the mountains ? (4) What about the relief of the rest of the state ? 

(o) \\ hat effect has that upon agriculture? (6) What waters form parts of the 
boundary of the state? (7) Into what rivers do the lakes empty? (8) What 
rivers drain New York? (9) State clearly the importance of the Erie Canal. 
(10) Which cities mentioned in the text are on the canal or on the Hudson ? In 
what industry is each engaged? (11) What other cities of New York are men¬ 
tioned? For what is each important? (12) Compare New York in size with all 
°f New England. Remember that the scales of the two maps are different. 
(13) Draw a map of New York like that of Maine (p. 65). When studying each 
of the other states, do the same for it. 

New Jersey (N.J.). — (14) Why should peaches grow' better in New Jersey 
than m New England ? (15) Name and locate each of the cities mentioned in the 

text. For what is each important ? (16) Make a list of the five largest cities in 

New Jersey, and compare them with the five largest in New York. (For their 
populations, see Appendix, pp. iv-vi.) (17) In what ways are some of the lat¬ 
est cities dependent upon the products of Pennsylvania? (18) Add together the 
populations of all the large cities near New York (see map, Fig. 62) to see how 
large it would be if it could include those in New Jersey. 

l ( Pa ‘ ° r Penn -)‘ ~ ( 19 ) Where would you look for the best farm 

and. (~0) 1 he principal forests? (21) The leading coal mines ? (22) Where 

aie the principal cities? Why located w'here they are? (23) Make a list of the 
five largest cities, and compare their size with the five largest in New York and 

^ ^ Why aiG there fewer Iakes in Pennsylvania than in New York ? 
V°) Should you expect to find fewer waterfalls also? fSeen. 15A Whr 



What would be the effect upon the 
again so that Chesapeake Bay disap- 



Relief map of the Southern States. 

























West 97° from 

Fig. 87. 

W M wL? UESTI tf S '~ (1 ) IU What three parts of this section are mountains found? 
4 Whar ? meS 1 0f . the “tains? (3) Which states have no mountains? 

what statP« e* pnncipal tnbutaries to the largest river of the section? (5) Through 

what states would you pass in going by water from New Orleans to Chattanooga? 
(b) Find some natural boundaries in this section. (7) Compare the coast with that of New 



























































England. Why the difference? (8) Why are there so few lakes? (9) The rivers that rise 
in western Texas — as the Colorado—are often perfectly dry in the western third of their 
course. Why? (10) Name the states in this group. (11) Find the capital of each. 
(12) Which of the states have a seacoast? (13) Which have none ? (14) Which border the 
Mississippi ? (15) Which drain into that river? (16) Can you give reasons why the largest 
city is near the mouth of the Mississippi? 



























































Fig. 88. 


Map to show the location ot New Orleans, Memphis, Birmingham, and Atlanta. 






























































MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 


97 


reared and the Susquehanna flowed through it? (40) Compare the size of Balti¬ 
more with Philadelphia, New York, and Boston. 

Vi *' jinia , ( ~ 1,1 whafc other state is the capital the most important city? 

(4<) Describe the tobacco industry. (48) Which cities are engaged in its maim- 
tacture. ( 49 ) What river separates Virginia from Maryland? (50) What river 
crosses the middle of Virginia? (51) Compare Richmond in size with Albany. 
(°~) ,lt)VV does Virginia rank in iron production (Fig. 222)? 

West Virginia ( IF. Fa.). — (53) What disadvantage is it to this state that it 
has no seacoast ? (o4) How would we reach the ocean by water from West Vir¬ 

ginia? (55) Where is the largest city? Why there? (56) How does it compare 
* lze ' vlt 1 PlU sburg? (57) Should you expect to find much forest in this state? 
( 08 ) Much farming? (59) Coal, iron, petroleum, and natural gas are found 
theie.^ Of what value are these? (60) What mountain range in the east? 

General. — (61) Describe the surface features of this group of states from the 
rehef map (1 ig. 63). (62) Describe the differences in climate in the different parts. 

(63) State the principal industries of the Middle Atlantic States. (64) Make a 
list of the ten largest cities. Add their populations together, and compare the 
result with the ten largest in New England. (See Appendix, pp. iv-vi.) 

Suggestions. — ( 1 ) Collect pictures of Niagara Falls. Learn something 
about the use of Niagara power. ( 2 ) Examine a live oyster or clam, to see what 
holds the shells together. What do you suppose is the object of the shell ? 
(3) Jhe duty paid to the United States government on a pound of smoking 
tobacco is 12 cents. How much is that per ounce? ( 4 ) Find where the canned 
fruits and vegetables in your neighboring grocery store have come from. ( 5 ) Make 
a collection of the kinds of coal. Of coke and iron ore. ( 6 ) In small bottles 
collect the products made from petroleum. ( 7 ) Collect samples of cast iron, 
wrought ii on, and steel. ( 8 ) Estimate on the map (fig. 44) the distance by water 
from New 5 ork City to Duluth. (9) Find the population in the ten largest cities 
along the Great Lakes by adding the numbers given in the Appendix. ( 10 ) Are 
there any canals in California ? (11) V by are locks in canals necessary? ( 12 ) 

Give reasons why freight rates on canals are cheaper than those on railways. (13) 
Write a composition, giving the reasons why one might prefer to live in a large city; 
why one might prefer to live in the country. (14) Collect pictures of scenes in a 
large city; in the country. (15) Can you give a reason why the Erie Canal should 
have reached to Lake Erie instead of to Ontario? (16) Make a drawing of these 
states, including the principal rivers and cities. Locate the capitals. 

For References, see Teacher's Bool:. 


VII. SOUTHERN STATES 


Physiography. —Almost the entire area included in this group of 
states is made up of plains. The most level portions are the delta 
and flood plain of the Mississippi, and the coastal plains, which skirt 
the entire Gulf and Atlantic coast of the Southern States (Fig. 43). 

1 lie coastal plains are very level ; and, 
since the rainfall is heavy, they are often 
swampy, especially near the rivers. Their 
higher portions are more irregular and 
better drained; but, since the soil is sandy, 
there are large areas which are too barren 
for agriculture and are therefore still cov¬ 
ered by an open pine forest. 

West of the coastal plains that border 
the Atlantic, and separated from them by 
the fall line (Fig. 59), is the still higher 
Piedmont plateau, which extends to the base 
of the Appalachians. The Piedmont sec¬ 
tion has a good drainage and excellent soil, 
so that it is the seat of extensive agriculture, 
especially cotton and tobacco raising. This 
plateau slopes gradually from the base of the 
Appalachians, where its elevation is about 
1000 feet above sea level, to the fall line, 
where the elevation of the plain is from 100 
to 500 feet above the sea. It is really a 
region of old mountains worn down to a 
rolling and, in places, slightly hilly plain. 

On Figure 88 it will be seen that the 
Appalachian Mountains, with their rich coal 
beds, continue southwestward from Virginia into Alabama. In 
tie Southern States these mountains are generally low, as they are 
m the Middle Atlantic States; but in western North Carolina and 
eastern Tennessee the mountains are much higher. 

98 



Fig. 89. 

An oil “gusher,” Spindle Top 
oil field, Beaumont, Texas. 



SOUTHERN STATES 


99 


As in Pennsylvania and West Virginia, there is a rough plateau 
west of the Appalachians. This plateau is deeply cut by river 
valleys, and is so rugged that it is still covered by extensive forests 
and has few inhabitants. Still farther west are the broad and fertile 
plains of the Mississippi Valley and of Texas. These are interrupted 
by some low mountains in Oklahoma, Arkansas, and Texas. 

In western lexas the plains rise until they become high plateaus, 
reaching an elevation of 4000 to 5000 feet near the base of the spurs 
of the Rocky Mountains, which extend into Texas. 

The coast line is much more regular than that of New England. As 
lias been stated (p. 17), this part of the continent has been raised instead 
of lowered. However, after the continental* shelf was lifted enough to 
form the coastal plains, there came a slight sinking, though much less 
than m New England. This sinking has admitted the ocean waters into 
the valleys, forming shallow bays and poor harbors. Sand bars, built by 
waves and tides, have made these harbors even poorer; and each year 
large sums of money are spent by the government in dredging the sand 
away from the harbor entrances. 

I>ars are built, not only opposite the bays, but also where the storm 
waves break in the shallow water off shore. It is in this way that 
(’apes Hatteras and Fear have been built, as well as the long chain of 
bars along the low southern coast. The waves throw the sand up in 
banks, and the winds pile it still higher, forming sand dunes. These facts 
partly explain the reason why there are not so many large coast cities in 
the South as there are along the irregular northern coast. 

Still anothei kind of coast is found in southern Florida, where count¬ 
less millions of coral polyps live in the warm waters of the Gulf Stream. 
These have built the limestone rock which forms the southern part of the 
Florida peninsula and also the many reefs and small islands, or keys , 
which lie just south of Florida. 

Climate. — The low plains of the Southern States lie so far south 
that the climate is everywhere warm; and the damp winds from the 
Gulf bring an abundant rainfall to them. These conditions make 
it possible to raise cotton, sugar cane, and rice, which cannot be 
grown in the colder Northern States. In southern Florida, semi- 
tropical and even tropical fruits are easily raised. Among the 
Florida fruits are oranges, lemons, pineapples (Fig. 90), cocoanuts, 
and bananas. What is the latitude of southern Florida? 

During the cold and disagreeable Northern winter, the Southern weather 
is mild, like spring and autumn in the North. Flowers are in blossom 
and birds are singing, many of them having migrated there for the winter. 
Large numbers of Northern people also go South to spend the winter at 


100 


NORTH AMERICA 


such resorts as Jacksonville and St. Augustine. The latter, founded 
in 1565, is one of the early Spanish settlements. One of the important 

winter industries of the inhabitants 
is the entertainment of winter 
visitors. 

While Northern people travel 
South in winter to escape the cold, 
many Southerners go North in sum¬ 
mer to escape the heat. Others 
summer among the high mountains, 
where the climate is cool even in 
midsummer. The best-known 
mountain resort is Asheville in 
North Carolina. In some places, 
as Hot Springs, Arkansas, there 
are mineral springs, to which people 
resort to be cured of certain diseases. 

Western Texas has a different 
climate from the other parts of 
the South. Being too far from 
the sea to be reached by damp winds, it receives little rain. The occu¬ 
pations are influenced accordingly. As one travels westward from 
the Gulf, he passes from the warm, damp, coastal plains to a semi-arid 
country. At first there are dense forests; then come plains with 
scattered trees, especially 
the live oak (Fig. 91) ; 
beyond these are broad 
prairies without trees, 
but with extensive cotton 
fields. Next a section is 
reached which is too dry 
for cotton, and this coun¬ 
try, fitted only for ranch¬ 
ing, stretches westward 
for several hundred miles. 

Forests. — Extensive 
areas in the Southern 
States are timber-cov¬ 
ered, and among the 
forests are found many 

trees unknown in the North, some of them, such as the magnolias, 
bearing large, sweet-scented flowers. There are forests not^merely 



Fig. 91. 

A live-oak grove with the Southern moss hanging 
from the limbs. 









SOUTHERN STATES 


101 


among the mountains, but also on the coastal plains, especially where 
the soil is sandy (tig. 92). The method of lumbering is somewhat 
different from that in New England (p. 51). Instead of floating the 
logs down to tide water by means of the spring freshets, sawmills 
are located in the midst of the forests, if possible on the river banks. 
To them the logs are brought, either by water, by wagon, or by train, 
and are sawed into lumber. 

1 he long-leaved or hard pine, often called the Georgia pine y which 
grows on the sandy coastal plains, is much used for flooring in the 
North. It is shipped North from the coastal cities of Charleston, 
South Carolina, Savannah and Brunswick, Georgia, Jackson¬ 
ville and Pensacola, Florida, and Mobile, Alabama. 

While the pine thrives on the low, sandy plains, the hardy oak 
and other trees are found upon the plateaus and among the moun¬ 
tains. Quantities of hardwood are shipped from Memphis, Tennes¬ 
see; but although 
much of the pine, 
oak, and other lum¬ 
ber is sent North, 
a great deal of 
it is manufactured 
into doors, blinds, 
furniture, etc., in 
the Soutli, as at 
High Point, North 
Carolina, Macon 
and M o n tg o m e r y 
on the fall line, and 
at Atlanta. There is also lumber manufacturing at the coast 
cities already mentioned, as well as in many other Southern cities. 

These forests are of value in two other ways. From them are obtained 
turpentine and tannic acid , the liquid in which hides are soaked to make 
leather (p. 61). In the Northern States hemlock bark furnishes a tannic 
acid which gives the leather a red color, so that shoes made from it need 
to be blackened ; but tannic acid from the chestnut oak of the South gives 
a lighter or tan color, and it is from such leather that tan shoes are made. 

Agriculture 

Although farming is carried on in all the states we have thus far 

o n 

studied, other occupations are followed by great numbers of people. 





Fig. 92. 

A scene in the pine forest of the Southern coastal plains. 















102 


NORTH AMERICA 


Give examples. In the South, however, with its excellent soil and 
warm climate, agriculture is the principal industry. Indeed, until 
recently, there was almost no other industry except commerce. 

While the climate makes it possible to raise crops which cannot be 
grown in the cooler Northern States, some products are the same as 
those of the North. For instance, tobacco raising, already described 
as an industry of great importance in Virginia, is also extensively 
carried on in Tennessee and North Carolina. Clarksville, Ten¬ 
nessee, and Durham, North Carolina, are centers for this industry. 
Name some Virginia cities likewise engaged in it. 

Cotton. — I he crop in the South that surpasses ever}^ other in 
value is cotton. The early colonists soon discovered that cotton 



Fig. 93. 

Rural scene in the cotton belt. 


could easily be raised, and that a ready market awaited the crop 
abroad. Their fields were far too large to be cultivated without 
many laborers, and negro slaves, offered for sale at that time in 
many parts of the world, were found especially suited to work in the 
cotton fields. In this way it came about that cotton had much to do 
with the spread of slavery in the Southern States. 

It is owing to the system of slavery that there are now eight 
million negroes in this country. Among the mountains of North 
Carolina and other states, where cotton, rice, and sugar cane cannot 
thrive, and where the farms must be small, there are whole counties 
where there are almost no negroes ; but in portions of some of the 
Southern States they far outnumber the whites. Most of the negroes 
still make their living by working in the cotton fields, for cotton is 
the principal crop all the way from North Carolina to Texas. 











SOUTIIEUN STA TES 


103 


In 1907 the Southern States produced about 13,500,000 bales of cotton, 
each weighing nearly 500 pounds. Of this, about 9,000,000 bales were 
s lipped abroad, especially to England. The remainder was manufactured 
at home, particularly in New England and the South. In the same year 
the entire world produced a little over 19,000,000 bales, which makes it 
clear that the United States furnishes much more than half of all the 
cotton grown. When we remember that much of our clothing is made of 
cotton, it is evident that the Southern States make it their chief work to 
help clothe the various peoples of the world. 

Cotton requires rather fertile soil and a long, warm summer with an 
abundance of rain. These conditions exist throughout the regions marked 
as the cotton belt in Figure 213; but, on account of the short summer 
season, they are wanting in the North. 

Cotton seeds are planted in the spring, in rows about three feet apart, 
and the weeds are kept out until the plants are nearly grown. They 
reach a height of about three feet, and develop large blossoms that pro- 



Fia. 1»4. 


Picking cotton. 


duce a pod, in which the cotton and cotton seed are contained. On matur¬ 
ing, the pod bursts open, revealing a white woolly ball, known as cotton , 
which in appearance resembles the downy substance in the thistle and 
in the pod of the milkweed. 

When a great number of these pods have split open, a cotton planta¬ 
tion of five or six hundred acres presents a beautiful sight,— much like 
a field flecked with snow (Fig. 94). Then the busy season for the pickers 
begins. As many as two or three hundred men, women, and children 






















104 


NORTH AMERICA 


may assemble in one field, carrying bags and picking cotton, singing and 
chattering the livelong day. 

When plucked from the pods, the cotton is attached to seeds, and these 
must be removed before the cotton can be of use. The seedless cotton is 



Fig. 95. 

Bales of cotton at a railway station in the South. 


tightly pressed into bales of about five hundred pounds, which are then 
covered with coarse jute bagging, bound with iron bands, and shipped 
away to the warehouses, to be sold. 

Rice. — This is one of the most valuable food products of the 
world, being the main support of millions of people, as the Chinese, 
for example. Although it is not a staple food in the United States, 
we do not raise even enough for our own use. Rice requires a warm 
climate and a damp soil, such as prevail on the low coastal and flood 
plains from the Carolinas to Texas. Although raised throughout that 
section, the largest quantity comes from Louisiana. 

In the cultivation of rice, after preparing the ground, as for other 
grains, and planting the seeds, it is usually necessary to flood the fields 
from ditches. As the plant grows, it forms a slender stalk, upon the top 
of which appears a head of seed somewhat resembling a head of oats, 
the whole reaching a height of from three and a half to six feet. Just 
before the harvest season the water is drawn off, so that horses may enter 
the field, and the grain is then cut and the kernels threshed out, as in the 
case of wheat. After the hull is removed, the grains are polished at such 
cities as New Orleans, Savannah, and Charleston, and are then ready 
for market. 

Sugar Cane and Sugar. — There is a number of plants from 
whose sap sugar is made. One of these, the sugar maple, has already 
been mentioned (p. 54) ; another is the sugar beet, raised in great 
quantities in some of the European countries, and also, of late, in 














SO VTUERN S'l'A TES 


105 


many parts of the United States. This beet is a very important 
source of sugar, because it can be raised in the cool, temperate 
climate. For a long time, however, the principal source of sugar has 
been the sugar cane, a plant that looks somewhat like corn. 

Ibis plant requires a fertile soil and grows only in warm regions, 
where there is practically no frost even in winter. For this reason 
the most cane sugar comes from tropical lands, such as the Hawaiian 
Islands, the Philippines, Porto Kico, and Cuba (Figs. 215 and 507). 

In our own country the most noted sugar district is the delta of the 
Mississippi in Louisiana. 

In that section there are large sugar plantations, some of them bavin-' 
several thousand acres planted to sugar cane. The cane is planted in rows 
about six feet apart, and grows to be two or more inches in diameter and 
fioin four to ten feet in height (Fig. 97). A crop is raised every twelve 
months, being cut in the fall and taken to the sugar house, where‘the cane 
is ground between rollers to squeeze out the juice. 

The juice, or sap, after being treated with lime, is placed in large vats 

and heated to evaporate the water. As a result, two products are formed,_ 

a thick black molasses and brown sugar. 

llie crude sugar is sent to the refinery, either in New Orleans 
(Fig. 100) or in the North, where it is changed to white sugar by 



Fig. 96. 

Partial view of grounds and buildings of Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute, Tns- 

kegee, Alabama. 


9—a a 







106 


NORTH AMERICA 


a complicated process, as a result of which the various grades of 
granulated, powdered, and lump sugar are produced. In changing 
the brown to the white sugar, burned bones, called boneblack, are 
made use of to filter out the impurities. The bones are obtained 



Fig. 97. 

Cutting the sugar cane in Louisiana. 


from Chicago and elsewhere, where large numbers of animals are 
killed for meat. 

The molasses is used for various purposes, some of it, especially 
in the West Indies, being consumed in the manufacture of rum. 
Molasses is a by-product, like sawdust in a lumber mill, and is not 
considered of much value by the sugar raiser. 

Fruits. I ruits, such as watermelons, apples, peaches, pears, and 
grapes, flourish in the warm climate of the Southern States. Florida, 
however, is so far south that it has fruits of an entirely different 
kind. I lie re are orange and lemon groves in many parts of the 
state ; but in the northern part the trees have been greatly 
injured by frosts. During cold waves (p. 12), cool air from the 
North sweeps over the Southern States even as far as Florida, 
sometimes causing great destruction. Farther south, where frosts 
nevei appear, are found the more tender tropical plants, such as 
cocoanuts and pineapples (Fig. 90). The latter grow especially 
well on the low coral keys, the plant resembling an arid-land 

plant, with the pineapple nestled in the midst of sharp-pointed 
leaves. 

Florida and other Southern fruits are sent in great quantities to 
the Northern States, where they appear in the markets early in the 
spring. Thousands of bushels at a time are shipped by fast train 




S O V TIIER N S TA TES 


107 

and s ‘ ea “ er - T1,e y are sent together with early vegetables, and are 
intended for hundreds of cities and towns in the North. 

Other Crops. —Many other crops besides those thus far named are raised 
in the South, corn and wheat being among the most important. An im¬ 
mense quantity of corn is produced, and over almost as wide an area as 
cotton itself ; but since corn and wheat are raised so much more exten¬ 
sively in states farther north, they are treated later (pp. 124 to 12G). 

1 eanuts and sweet potatoes are two important products of these 
states, particularly of North Carolina. Stock of various kinds, as horses 
cattle, slice]), and hogs, is also raised, each plantation usually having some 
of these animals. In the open pine forests of the Florida and Georgia 
coastal plains, large numbers of cattle are raised. 

An important animal in the South, and one which makes a strong 
draught animal well suited to a warm climate, is the mule. On the fertile 
plains, especially in Tennessee and Kentucky, much attention is paid to 
raising mules and fine breeds of horses. 


Grazing. In western 1 exas, where the rainfall is insufficient for 
agriculture, grazing is the chief industry. The climate is so dry 
that the grass cures and becomes hay while still upon the ground, 



Fig. <)8. 

Cattle on the Great Plains of Texas. 


thus offering such excellent food-for cattle and sheep that ranching 
is a thriving business. One may travel for two or three hundred 
miles westward over the plains, seeing little else than a ranch house 
here and there, with an occasional herd of cattle or sheep. 

While there is no reason for large cities in this section, and the 
life of the cowboys and sheep herders is a lonely one, it is their 
work that helps to supply our tables with meat, and provides us 
with woolen clothing and with shoes. 

















108 


NORTH AMERICA 


Mineral Products 

Coal and Iron. — Coal and iron ore constitute the principal min¬ 
eral wealth of the South. These two minerals occur among the 
mountain ranges all the way from Pennsylvania to the Southern 
States. They are mined in several places, as near Chattanooga in 
eastern Tennessee ; but the most noted of all is a district at the 
extreme end of the Appalachian system around Birmingham, Ala¬ 
bama. This region is so rich in these products that it now ranks as 
the second iron-producing section of the continent. 

We learned that Pennsylvania enjoyed a great advantage in hav¬ 
ing iron ore and coal near together ; but in Birmingham even more 
favorable conditions are found. That city has grown up in the 
midst of a valley, around the margin of which are found iron ore, 
coal, and limestone, the three materials necessary for the production 
of iron and steel. In consequence, this section has become a great 
manufacturing center. 

Stone. — A large amount of building stone, especially granite and 
marble, is found in northern Georgia; and near Knoxville, in eastern 
Tennessee, much marble of different colors is quarried. What city in 
Vermont is likewise noted for marble? (p. 54.) ' 

Gold and Precious Stones. — In the mountainous portion of western 
Georgia and North Carolina there is a gold-producing belt which formerly 
yielded much gold, and from which some is still obtained. Occasionally, 
too, precious stones, as sapphires and diamonds, are found. % 

Phosphates. — The soil of farms often becomes worn out and needs 
a fertilizer. There are various kinds of fertilizers, as manure and bone 
dust, which furnish the plant food needed by crops; but one of the most 
important fertilizers is mineral phosphate. This is found in great quan¬ 
tities in Florida, Tennessee, and South Carolina. It is a deposit in which 
are found fossil remains of many animals, such as the teeth of sharks, and 
the bones and teeth of many large land animals. Among the latter is the 
huge mastodon, which lived in this country long before white men came. 
Ihis fertilizer is so valuable that it is shipped to the Northern States from 
Charleston, Jacksonville, and Tampa, to be used on the farms in that 
section of the country. 

Salt and Oil. Salt is obtained in Louisiana and in Texas ; and recent 
discoveries of vast quantities of oil in Texas (Fig. 89) have made that state 
one of the most noted oil-producing regions in the world. 

Manufacturing 

Birmingham, the leading iron manufacturing center of the 
South, is located on an old cotton plantation. In 1880 it had a 
population of 8086 ; but now it contains about forty-five thousand per- 


SOUTHERN STATES 


100 


sons. What special advantage lias it ? In this city, as in Pittsburg 
and Allegheny, the iron ore is reduced to iron "in blast furnaces 
(p. 81), and then changed to steel and various other useful articles. 
Several other cities near the mountains are also noted for their iron 

manufacturing, as Rome and Atlanta, Georgia, and Knoxville 
and Chattanooga, Tennessee. 

Before the war there was very little manufacturing in the South. The 
negroes, who did most of the manual labor there, lacked the training 
necessary to handle machinery. At that time nearly all of the slaves were 
unable to read or write; but now only about half of the colored people 
are illiterate. The raw materials were shipped away, and manufactured 
articles brought back. Thus the cotton Avent to England, New England, 
and elsewhere, some of it to be returned in the form of clothes; and the 
lumber Avas shipped to various Northern cities, to be sent back in the 
form of furniture. The iron ore was little mined. 


This situation is now fast changing. Since the Civil War the 
Southerners have become actively engaged in manufacturing, and 
many Northerners, recognizing the superior natural advantages, 
have moA r ed into the South. The South has awakened to its great 
opportunities, and the hum of factories is now heard in many places. 
The iron industry is already Avell developed, and each year new 
cotton mills are being erected. 


Some idea of Avhat one of these cotton mills means may be gained 
from a certain one in Alabama. It employs bOO hands, including men, 
Avomen, boys, and girls, and 
pays them about $2000 per 
Aveek in Avages. Each day 
this mill consumes 15 bales 
of cotton, averaging about 
500 pounds; and since the 
average yield per acre of 
land is about 250 pounds, 
you can easily estimate about 
Iioav many acres of cotton are 
called for in one year by this 
one mill. AVhite people are 
employed, and as a rule they 
live in villages that have sprung up in the immediate neighborhood of 
the mills. Some are so large that they have their oavii schoolhouses and 
churches. 



Fig. 99. 

A cotton factory at Huntsville, Alabama. 


Texas raises more cotton than any other state, but most of it is 
still shipped away. In that state, in 1897, there Avere only four 








110 


NORTH AMERICA 


cotton mills, while North Carolina had about 200. Nor is there 
much cotton manufacturing in Arkansas, Mississippi, and Louisiana. 

Formerly the cotton seeds were slowly picked out of the cotton by 
hand, and then thrown away. Whitney’s invention of the Cotton Gin, 1 in 
1793, enabled one laborer to separate from the seed as much as 1000 
pounds in the time that was formerly required to clean five or six by hand. 
That, of course, made cotton raising far more profitable, and had an im¬ 
mense influence upon the amount produced, as well as upon the number of 
slaves needed. 

Instead of being thrown away, the cotton seeds are now saved. There 
are two or three pounds of seeds to one pound of fiber; and since, on the 
average, one acre produces about 250 pounds of seedless cotton, the quantity 
of seed from a 600-acre plantation is very large. It was an immense loss 
when the seeds were thrown away; but now a kind of oil, called cotton¬ 
seed oil , is extracted from them, and is used in making soap, imitation 
butter, and a substitute for olive oil. Further than that, tfie part of the 
seed that is left after the oil is pressed out has - been found to be an excel¬ 
lent food for cattle and a good fertilizer. 

A\ bile hundreds of Southern cities and towns now manufacture 
cotton cloth and cotton-seed oil, the most noted are Columbia and 
Greenville, South Carolina, Charlotte, North Carolina, and 
Augusta, Columbus, and Atlanta, Georgia. What cities in New 
England are likewise noted for cotton manufacture ? How do they 
compare in size with these ? (See tables in Appendix, pp. iv-vi.) 

Some of the other articles manufactured in the South have al¬ 
ready been mentioned, as furniture and other objects from wood 
(p. 101), tobacco (p. 102), and sugar (p. 104). In each case this work 
in confined mainly to the section in which the raw material is raised. 

I oi example : New Orleans, in the midst of sugar plantations, has 
large sugar refineries ; Macon, Montgomery, Mobile, Chatta¬ 
nooga, Memphis, and Little Rock, all in the neighborhood of 
foiests, produce lumber and furniture ; and Raleigh, Durham, 
Winston, and other cities in northern North Carolina manufacture 

tobacco. Which of the manufacturing cities mentioned are on the 
fall line? (Fig. 59.) 

Key West, on a small coral key south of the Florida peninsula, is 
also noted for its tobacco factories. It is so near Cuba that the Havana 
tobacco, so much prized by cigar smokers, is easily obtained. There is also 
cigar manufacturing at Tampa. Why there ? 

Gin is merely an abbreviation for engine. 


SOU Til Eli N S TA T ES 


111 


Leading Cities and Shipping Routes 

The largest cities so far studied have been located at points on 

the water where the shipping advantages are superior, and where 

numerous factories have consequently been located. Give examples 

- or reasons already mentioned, the Southern States have not so 

many fine harbors as the Northern States (p. 17). Besides that, 

although many factories have recently been built, the people are still 

mam y engaged in farming. On these accounts we cannot expect to 

find so many or so large cities as in the North ; and most of those 

that do exist may be looked for either on the Mississippi River or on 
tne const. 

New Orleans - The greatest of all Southern cities is New 
Orleans, the largest city in eastern United States south of St. 
Louis. It has a population of nearly 300,000, or more than half 



Fig. 100. 


Loading a river steamer at the levee in New Orleans. A large sugar refinery is seen in the 

distance, on the left. 


as many as Boston, and is the twelfth in size in the United States. 
When we recall the advantages of New York’s water connection 
with the West, we can readily explain the growth of New Orleans. 
1 ittsbuig on the Ohio, St. Paul on the Mississippi, and Kansas City 
on the Missouri, may all he reached from New Orleans by boat 
(Fig. 44). How do these distances compare with those from New 
York to Chicago and to Duluth ? Also how far apart are Pittsburg 
and Kansas City ? 




















112 


NORTH AMERICA 


New Orleans is situated at the gateway to the most productive 
valley in North America. The city is located about one hundred 
miles from the mouth of the Mississippi, at a point to which ocean 
vessels can ascend, although they dare not venture much beyond it. 
On the map (Fig. 87) you will see that an arm of the sea, called 
Lake Pontchartrain, reaches up to the city, and that New Orleans is 
located at the place where the river and lake are nearest together. 
The stream there makes a bend in the form of a half circle, which 
explains the reason for the name of Crescent City, commonly 
applied to New Orleans. 

Much of the land on which New Orleans rests is frequently below the 
level of the river. In fact, from Memphis southward, a large part of the 
land on either side of the river is a low flood plain, spreading out for 



Fig. 101. 

Shearing sheep. Tell what you see in the picture. 

many miles, and often threatened with floods. The mighty river receiving 
tributaries from regions thousands of miles apart, is charged with yellow 
mud, which gradually sinks to the bottom as the current becomes slower 
toward the mouth. This has built up the bed of the river, so that at high 
water the floods would spread over the broad flood plains if these were 
not protected by strong walls of earth, called levees. In spite of their 
strength, these embankments occasionally give way, especially in the 
springtime, when the snows are melting in the North; then the destruc¬ 
tion to life and property is appalling. At such times hundreds of men 
patrol the levees night and day to check the slightest leak. Even a hole 
made by a crawfish may be the beginning of an awful inundation. Why ? 









SO UTIIERN S TA TES 


113 


Some peculiar consequences result from this condition. The soil on 
which ISew Orleans stands is naturally very wet. Indeed, in digging 
foundations for buildings, water is reached a short distance below the 
surface. On that account there can be no cellars under the houses, and it 
is difficult to provide proper drainage. 

Since the city once belonged to France (p. T°>), French is still a common 
language there, one person in six being of French stock. About one 
person in four is colored. 

Frost seldom reaches this city, and the midwinter weather is rarely 
colder than the occasional frosty early autumn evenings of the North. 
What must be the effect of this climate upon the style of houses? Also 
upon the presence of birds, flowers, and fruits in winter? 


Knowing the farm products in this region, we have a key to the 
exports from this point. New Orleans is an important cotton market 
and a center for sugar, molasses, and rice, besides being a shipping 
point for products from farther up the Mississippi Valley. 

Like New York, this city is now connected with the distant 
interior by rail as well as by water. The Illinois Central Railway 
extends all the way to Chicago, running parallel to the river for 
much of the distance ; the Louisville and Nashville reaches Louisville 
and St. Louis; and the Southern Railway runs most of the distance 
from New Orleans to Washington, connecting with the Southern 
Pacific, which extends westward, across Texas, to California. 

Memphis and Atlanta.— The cities next in size are Memphis 
and Atlanta (Fig. 87), each having more than one hundred thou¬ 
sand inhabitants. The former is situated in Tennessee, on a bluff 
where the Mississippi River swings out upon its broad flood plain. 
Why is that a favorable location ? Memphis is one of the great 
cotton centers and lumber markets of the South. 

Atlanta, the “ Gate City,” is one of the few large cities not 
located upon a water route. Northeast of it, for over 350 miles, 
there is no easy pass across the mountains ; and until 1880 no rail¬ 
way crossed the mountain ranges in all that distance. Near where 
Atlanta stands, however, there is a good route ; and railways reach¬ 
ing westward from the Carolinas or northern Georgia come together 
there, making Atlanta a great railway center. Owing to its advan¬ 
tageous situation, Atlanta is the leading interior wholesale market of 
the South, and surpasses all Southern cities in the number and variety 
of its manufactures. 

Nashville, the capital of Tennessee, has sawmills, furniture 
factories, and flour mills. Being in the midst of a splendid farming 


114 


NORTH AMERICA 


country, it is a distributing 1 point for supplies to the neighboring 
towns and farms. It is also one of the educational centers of the 
South, having Vanderbilt University and other important schools. 
There are several other educational institutions'in the South, among 
which is the 1 uskegee Normal and Industrial Institute of 
1 uskegee, Alabama (big. 96}, a school for the training of the 
negro. Ihe object of the school is to furnish its students with an 
education, fitting them to become proper leaders of the people of 

their own race, and thus to bring about better moral and material 
conditions. 


Instruction and practical work are given in all the trades, such 
as carpentry, blacksmithing, sewing, domestic service, nursing, etc. 
The Institute owns 2600 acres of land, has 145 instructors, and 
o^ ei 1500 students enrolled. This school is doing wonders for the 
negro people of the South. It has attained a remarkable degree of 
success under the able direction of the noted negro educator, Booker 
T. Washington, its principal. 

Texas Cities. — Texas is the largest state in the Union. Find how 
it compares with New England in size (Fig. 44). The western third 
of the state, as was stated on page 100, is fitted mainly for grazing 
although there is some mining in the mountains. Throughout that 
entire section there are no cities and almost no large towns, except 
in the extreme western corner, where El Paso is situated. The 
word El Paso means “ the pass ” in Spanish, for this city is situated 
at a pass m the Rocky Mountains, through which the Southern Paci¬ 
fic Railway passes westward, while an important line extends south- 
ward into Mexico. 

East of the and and semi-arid plateau is the fertile cotton belt. 

n tins there are many cities, such as Dallas and Fort Worth_ 

both shipping points, not only for cotton but also for cattle from the 
estern plains. Dallas is also a busy manufacturing city. Austin 
the capital, is a beautiful city on the Colorado River, and San An¬ 
tonio is a quaint Mexican town ; for Texas once belonged to the 
Mexicans, but declared its independence in 1836, after which (1845b 
it was taken into the Union. ^ 

am/rfr? 116 larg !f CitieS ° f Texas are Houston, near the coast, 
and Galveston, the principal seaport west of New Orleans 

Immense quantities of cotton and other products are shipped from 

*‘ l Avi U 1S ,f S ° a port of outlet for goods from the Far West, 

ahoma. — Many Indian tribes have been given land in what 


SOUTHERN STATES 


115 


was formerly called the Indian Territory ; but, owing to the fact 
that the Indians owned the land, little could be done to develop it 
until it was opened up to white settlement in part, as a territory at 
first, and afterward as the state of Oklahoma. 

Oklahoma, like Texas, is mainly a great plain, arid in the west¬ 
ern part, but in the eastern part a fertile agricultural district. The 



Fig. 102. 


Scene on an Indian reservation. 


principal products are corn in the north and cotton in the south. 
The western part was opened to settlers in 1890. Since then its 
growth has been so marvelous that almost all the farm land is now 
occupied and tilled. There are two flourishing cities, — Oklahoma 
and Guthrie. . 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 

Review Questions and Topics. — (1) Describe the physiography of these 
states: — the plains and their products; the mountains; the Texas plains; the 
coast — its bars, harbors, and coral keys. (2) Tell about the climate: — how it 
differs from the North; the climate of the mountains; the crops; the winter 
resorts; the summer resorts; the arid-section. (3) How do the forests and meth¬ 
ods of lumbering differ from those of Maine? (4) Which cities have important 
lumber industries ? (5) What besides lumber is obtained in the forests? (6) What 
about tobacco raising in the South? (7) Tell about cotton : — the effect in encour¬ 
aging slavery; amount produced; where grown ; method of planting and picking. 
(8) Do the same for rice ; and tell, also, what it is used for. (0) Describe the sugar 
industry: — source of sugar; where the sugar cane grows, and why; method of 
planting and harvesting; change to sugar. — where done, methods employed, and 
products obtained. (10) What fruits are raised in the South? Why there? 
(11) W hat other crops are important? (12) Where is grazing carried on? 













116 


NOUTII AMERICA 


Why there? How are we dependent upon these ranchmen? (13) Where are 
coal and iron found? (14) What great natural advantages lias Birmingham? 
(15) What other mineral products are obtained? (16) Tell about the phosphate. 
(17) Where is iron manufacturing carried on? (18) Tell about manufacturing 
in the South: — former condition; present change; importance of a single cotton 
factory ; the cotton gin ; uses of cotton seed; cities engaged in cotton manufactur¬ 
ing; cities engaged in other manufacturing. (19) Why are there not so many 
large cities in the South as in the North? (20) Tell about New Orleans: — the 
reason for its importance; why located just where it is; the need of levees; the 
inhabitants; the climate; the industries. (21) For what are Memphis and Atlanta 
important? (22) Chattanooga and Nashville ? (23) What about the river ports? 
(24) The seaports? (25) Name the principal cities of Texas and tell for what 
each is noted. (20) Tell something of the life of Booker T. Washington. 


Review by States: North Carolina {N.C .).— (1) Which part is mountain¬ 
ous? Name and locate the highest peak in the East. (2) What two plains in 
this state? (3) Which cities are mentioned in the text? Where is each? For 
what important? (4) What capes on the coast? (5) What are the industries? 
(See Figs. 209-231.) (6) Draw an outline map of this state like that of Maine, 

and later do the same for each of the other states. 

Tennessee {Tenn .).— (7) Where are the mountains? The plains? (8) Name 
two cities among the mountains. For what is each important ? (9) Answer the 

same question for two other cities in Tennessee. (10) Which city is the largest? 
(See table, Appendix, p. vi.) (11) What large river drains the state? Through 
what two large tributaries? (12) What industries in this state? 


South Carolina ( S.C. ).— (13) Describe the physiography of this state. 
(14) What are the principal industries? (15) What city is on the fall line ? On 
the seacoast t 4 or what is each important? (16) Which city is largest? 

Georgia {Gal). — (1<) Where are the mountains? (18) The plains? 

(19) What are the industries in each section? (20) Trace the fall line across 
the state (Fig. 59). What cities are on it? (21) Why is Atlanta situated 
where it is ? (22) How does it compare in size with the largest city in the 
three states just mentioned? (23) Ilow does it compare in size with New 

Orleans, Boston, Buffalo, and Providence? (24) Name the two seaports. What 
do they ship? 

Florida {Fla.). (25) Why are there so many lakes in Florida? (See p. 17.) 

( 20 ) What about the relief ? (27) What about the climate ? How does this influ¬ 
ence the crops? (28) What Florida cities were mentioned, and for what is each 
important. (29) What mineral product comes from Florida? (30) What is the 
principal industry at Key West? Why? 

Alabama {Ala.). — (31) Trace the fall line across this state. What cities are 
si mated on if. (32) W here is Mobile ? For what is it important ? (33) Describe 

le ocation and industries of Birmingham. (34) What crops are raised in Ala- 
>ama (3o) \v hat cities are engaged in manufacturing cotton ? (36) In lumber 
manufacturing ? (37) Compare Mobile in size with Atlanta and Birmingham. 

v Iississippi {Miss.). — (38) Why is there no seaport ? (39) Tn what wav can 

the products of the state beslnppedby water? (40) From what cities ? (41) What 

are the products? (43) Why no mining? (44) What reasons can you give why 
there is so little manufacturing? J h y 

Orle^r'n^WhyiT O.*) , S ‘ at V h « reasons f0 ‘- «.e great importance of New 

, . (4 : } it a better location than Mobile or Charleston? (46) Com- 

pare it in size with those cities. (47) With New York, Boston, and Baltimore. 



C E 


•200 200 
= ^= 1 


N T R A L 3 ~T/\ T El 3 

Modeled by Edwin. E. Howell. 




Co^vnc^A \y^'V<\c. Y\ cuiwy\\\ 


■i 


Fig. 103. 


o so \oo 

t=—i—r=fc= 


Describe the relief of this section. 






































Map Questions. — (1) Name the large rivers of this group. Draw a sketch map show¬ 
ing them. (2) Draw a sketch map of the five Great Lakes. (3) Locate upon each of those 
sketches the cities printed in large type (those over two hundred thousand inhabitants) (see 
Appendix, p. iv). (4) Are any of the very large cities not situated on rivet's or lakes ? Why ? 
(5) \\ hat advantages have these cities from their location ? (G) Examine Figure 9 to see 






























































8 

9° 

83° 

8P 

77° 

O M 

Y) u 

I 


VJVY^-Aijnf/on 

LLr —Q— 


CENTRAL STATES 




\ 

/y'/y\$VL ROYALE 

S l r r E * / ^ 


EASTERN SECTION 

Scale of Miles 


<*> 


0 25 50 75 100 

Capitals of States <• 


Other Citiesa 






Wausau * 
Eau Claire 

\\ 


1) 


K 


•Menominef 

Mhrinettea 



^- \ V 

IStr. of Mackmaep \ ^ . / Cy 

~ ° ([ ChebW^ r , K K J 

Alpena. 


lau Claire \ ^ r ‘‘< n j N 

rise Q/N s' cHN A ( . 

' Applefon VMamtawocO 


Winona! 


, Manistee 


US., ,, 

<-•( La ( rouse 
» 1 


, Oslik'osli^n 
Lake tft nnebayo^J 
\| Fond 


Jd\i) Lac Sheboygan 




O 


*\1 


Karine 


West 
Bay City 
1 ^ *Sugina* 

* < Port HuroiG.v/ 

j_ ~ i Flint. •Ij 

\ ^ Grand UapW^a^s' n 9 ^ 


f atertoVn i]\\-;uikoe Y**' lus ^ eg 

Madisons* 

Janesvillel* 


Toi-outty^Tt A h 1 ° 
o ? 

’^rTTaTalls' 

iffalo 


kH 


# ."^Rockford 
Freeport 


Buttle Creek'. ^ Detroit 

.Rockford 1 ' Kalainazoo* Jacksou* Ann Arbot{ f , p Erie 

_f\ EvanstonV vA / __ L , . 4 * / ' l 

Aurora. j «, j I Toletto-^. v!,„„ir*tu'w««i V 

Joliet/* ”■»/, f'o/, - ’o,, •tto.h.n ,y —f <, 

Ottawa hh ^ J ^ h! 

I 7%, 

- . I V Kni t "ayII 





\A zt-*auu g tl .^ 

I ^1^“tft 01 »./ Galesburg / 
f ort Madison .J ,» ... •&• 


Yoiiiig»to" n • j 


Tort Jl..dison, 
KeokuKNJ 


* IVUi: rv«. n»v _| - --- 

• Loganspoi t 

... Bloomington 1 , /^ S ‘» ri “'Sl- O^Jfl »stni^vilW., 

X 1 ,/Ij lX’OIS iS* U "*" , amJ* i Pi ''".“'Cnlun.b'n» f "’“'.( WtenllnA'. 

_ill_ it a _ i _— • T • • . ■ ■/.nneTyillS I •— 


(Quincy 


Hannibal 

W 


Springfield 

5 « 0 

s Jackson villi: 


Sf.f \V .Alton A 
, i- —\_^ East St.Lf 

BjfTleville 


Danville. U Andersyn j s^Utcfietd Zanev. d'e 

.Decatur ;(I N D V-A > A !.j )* Dayton if MariettA^ 

/^Ricbmund, ( iUon \ chm uothe Aparkersburg 

I inxiUnupo.ia | ^ iW E S 

- 1 Coiiiigtou'^yvPortsinoutli Alt 1 

_ Madison_) -^ - 

Vj V / I 

r ... I ^ 




teghenj 

l>\tt>'> ul ’- 



Evansville 


W K S T J 

-^T-ss J. /. > /' 

# i R G I > .j 

r i ■y-v 0, ‘f fA/t,t 0 '^v~^ <: ^-. charleston s> 

%Fran> 0 ^ Hunt Jton ^ ^ ^ 


yX.X^GV_—‘3? 



e> 


- — . ^ - —— . — ■ M » '1 ■ » ™~ • A ( 

1 R /k 


lMJl. _T *1K N 

89 c Longitude 


k \Re 



i\v 


V 



85° from 


Greenwich 



K 


11 . «>*Trs cn«**c ro.. 


how far the glacier advanced in these states. Do you find any lakes south of that line? 
(7) What influence must the Great Lakes have upon the summer climate of places near 
them? Upon the winter climate ? (8) Why i3 the interior colder in winter and warmer in 
summer than the coast? P) State some ways in which the Great Lakes must have influ¬ 
enced the development of the West. 









































Fig. 105. 

Map showing the location of Chicago and its relation to the Great Lakes. 


































































































SOUTllERN STA TES 


117 


(48) What large tributary enters the Mississippi in Louisiana? (49) What crops 
are raised in Louisiana ? Why there ? (50) Tell how the delta is caused to grow. 

Arkansas (Ark.). — (51) What large river enters the Mississippi in this state ? 
(oi) 1 here is much forest in Arkansas. In what part should you expect to 
find most of it? (53) Is Arkansas in the cotton belt? (See Fig. 213.) (54) The 
capital is the largest city. Compare it in size with Memphis. Why is it less 
favorably situated than that city? (55) Compare it with New Orleans. 

r lexas (Tex .).— (56) Where are the mountains? (57) Are there forests on 
the western plains? \\ hy? (58) What are the industries there? (59) What 

city in the western part? Why there? (60) What are the industries in eastern 
Texas? (Gl) What cities are mentioned in the text as being in eastern Texas ? 
(62) For what is Galveston noted? (63) Compare it in size with New Orleans, 
Charleston, and Boston. (64) Texas is how many times larger than Rhode Island ? 
(For area, see table in Appendix, p.iii.) Than Pennsylvania? (65) Add together 
the aieas of all the New England and Middle Atlantic States, and compare the 
total with the area of Texas. (66) Compare the population of Texas with that of 
Massachusetts. (See Appendix, p. iii.) Compare it with that of New York City. 
(See Appendix, p. vi.) 

Oklahoma (Okla .).— (67) What about the climate of the western part? (68) 
What crops are raised in the northern part? In the southern part? (69) Into 
what river does the territory drain ? (70) Name and locate two cities. 

General .— (71) "Which is the smallest state? (72) Compare it with Penn¬ 
sylvania and Massachusetts. (73) State the principal industries of the South. 

(74) Of what advantage is it that they are so different from those of the North ? 

(75) Add together the populations of the ten largest cities, and compare the result 
with the total for the ten largest in the New England States. (See table, Appen¬ 
dix, pp. iv-vii.) 


Suggestions. — (1) What do you know of the negro life and customs of the 
South? (2) Show several ways in which New England and the Southern States 
are dependent on each other. (3) What would be the effect on the cotton manu¬ 
facturing of England if the United States engaged in war with that country? 
(4) Find what the effect was at the time of the Civil War. (5) Near what 
places were some of the great battles of the war fought? (6) What other inven¬ 
tions may well be compared with that of the cotton gin in importance? (7) Try 
raising some rice in the schoolroom. (8) Raise some tobacco, cotton, and sugar 
cane. (9) About how much sugar does one family use each year? (10) Find 
out why the cultivation of rice is unhealthful work. (11) Find out something 
about Indian reservations and the methods employed by the United States to im¬ 
prove the condition of the Indians. (12) What reasons can you give for expect¬ 
ing the cotton mills in New England to prove less profitable, now that the South 
is developing such mills? (13) Find out how much farther it is from New 
Orleans to London than from New York. What effect should you think its greater 
distance from Europe would have on the growth of New Orleans? (14) Through 
what waters would a boat go from New Orleans to Kansas City? To Pittsburg? 
To Chicago? To San Francisco? 

For References, see Teacher's Book. 



Fm. 1013. 

Scenes on a farm in Ohio. Tell what you see in each picture. 


118 

















VIII. CENTRAL STATES 


Physiography and Climate. — A hundred years ago, when a con¬ 
siderable number of pioneers pushed across the Appalachian Moun¬ 
tains into Ohio and Kentucky, they were gladdened by the sight of 
immense tracts of level land. For hundreds of miles the plains slope 
gently toward the Mississippi ; and then, beyond that river, they 
slowly rise again for hundreds of miles to the very base of the Rocky 
Mountains. In a few places, as in western South Dakota and south¬ 
ern Missouri, low mountains rise above the plains ; but most of the 
country is a vast level tract, quite unlike the hilly and mountainous 
region farther east. What are the names of the mountains of the 
Central States? (Fig. 104.) 

Not only did the settlers find the land level, but most of it was 
free from forests and boulders. In many portions of New England 
weeks of hard labor were required to remove the trees from a single 
acre, and many days to drag away or bury the boulders. On the 
broad plains, however, such labor was unnecessary, for there were 
hundreds of thousands of square miles covered only with grass. 
These treeless plains became known as the prairies (p. 26). 

While boulders are abundant in some places, the glacier has in 
most sections left a deep, rich soil, free from stones. The reason for 
this is, that here the glacier found softer rocks to grind up into soil 
than in New England, and was therefore more easily able to reduce 
them to small fragments. In many sections, as in parts of Illinois, 
Indiana, and Ohio, the glacial drift is one or two hundred feet deep. 
It is the deposit of this drift which has caused the thousands of lakes 
in Minnesota and other states. 

The summers are too short for cotton, but they are long and hot 
enough for numerous other crops. The rainfall is also sufficient for 
crops, except in the extreme western part, which is arid, like western 
Texas (p. 100). 

Settlement of the Mississippi Valley.—The conditions seemed 
favorable for agriculture; and, in spite of danger from Indians, the 
settlers poured across the gaps in the mountains, following the Great 
Lakes or the Ohio River and its tributaries. At first only a few ven- 

119 


120 


NORTH AMERICA 


tured in, traveling until they reached a spot which suited their fancy. 
There they built rude log huts, and settled down to a solitary exist¬ 
ence, one family being perhaps miles away from its nearest neighbor. 

As more persons came and wished to proceed farther westward, 
they built flatboats to navigate the rivers, and they settled in groups 
along the river banks, forming villages which soon grew into towns 
and cities. Their life was of the simplest kind, each family depend¬ 
ing largely upon itself for whatever it needed (Primary Book, p. 82). 
Some articles had to be purchased; for though the rich soil produced 
abundant crops, the pioneers still needed sugar, cotton cloth, tools, 
and medicines. Since almost all this region drained into the Missis¬ 
sippi, the most accessible place where such supplies could be obtained 
was New Orleans. Consequently the products of the farm were 
floated on flatboats to that point, and there sold or exchanged for the 
articles desired. 

A great improvement was made when steam came into use. The first 
steamboat on these Western rivers was the New Orleans, which started out 
from Pittsburg in 1811. “ As it ran down the Ohio, making extraordinary 

speed in comparison with anything before known, the quiet denizens of the 
forests along the river banks were amazed and frightened by the strange 
apparition. Not a few of the more ignorant folk thought the Bay of Judg¬ 
ment was at hand, as they watched the showers of sparks and heard the 
rush of the wheels. And when the craft stopped at Louisville, well along 
in the night, and let off steam, the roar from the escape pipes brought a good 
share of the town tumbling out of their beds to see what was the matter.” 1 

Canals, similar to the Brie Canal in New York (p. 84), were also 
made, and the benefits of another invention began to be felt soon 
after the year 182 1 . In that year the first railway was built in the 
United States; and, as years passed, railway lines were so extended 
that even those regions that were at a distance from the rivers could 
be reached easily and quickly. 

These several improvements in the manner of traveling and 
carrying freight have exerted an immense influence upon the rapid¬ 
ity with which the Mississippi Valley has been settled. While 150 
years had been consumed in pushing the settlements westward to 
Ohio and Kentucky, it required less than one quarter of that time to 
extend them twice that distance farther west. Now, in spite of the 
great cities along the Atlantic coast, more people are living west of 
Cincinnati than east of it (Figs. 20T and 208), and the greater part 

lu The United States of America,” by N. S. Shaler, Yol. I, p. 296. 


CENTEAL STATES 


121 


of these aie in the Mississippi Valley. Altogether, including the 
Southern States, that valley now supports a population of about 
30,000,000. Large numbers of the settlers have come from Europe, 
especially from Germany, Scandinavia, and Ireland. 


Ag riculture 


Millions of persons in Europe and in our coast cities look to this 
valley for their bread, meat, and other food, as they look to the South 
for cotton. 


A Farm in Central Ohio. — All the way from eastern 
tral Nebraska, agriculture is a very important industry. 


Ohio to cen- 
The farms 



Fig. 107. 

Threshing wheat on a farm in Ohio. 


vary greatly in size, from a few acres to several thousand, but they 
usually contain from 80 to 100 acres. In the main, they resemble 
the one in Ohio that is described below. 

1 his Ohio farm of 160 acres has a house upon it in which the 
family lives, with a barn near by for horses, milch cows, and hay, and 
with a few sheds around it for grain and farming implements. 

A windmill in the rear keeps the milk house well supplied with 
cold water, and also fills the water troughs in the barnyard. On one 
side is an orchard having apple, peach, and pear trees, with a few 
rows of berry bushes in one part, and a chicken house in another, 
where enough chickens are raised to supply some meat and all the 
that are needed, with perhaps some to sell. On one side of the 
front vard are a few beehives, and back of them, between the orchard 
and the barn, is a garden for vegetables. Still back of that are 
several pig pens, in which hogs are fattened for home use and also 
for the market. 


10— \ O 





122 


NORTH AMERICA 


Farther away from the house are fields in which there are at 
least three or four different kinds of crops. Every farmer in that 
vicinity expects to grow corn, perhaps sixty acres of it, some grass 
for grazing and for hay, and wheat or some other kind of grain. 
After these crops are harvested, they are either sold, or fed to stock 
— horses, cattle, hogs, or sheep — upon the farm. The latter plan 
is often followed, chiefly because it pays better to fatten stock and 
sell it than to sell the crops themselves. There are generally two or 
three good milch cows on hand, which not only supply the family 
with fresh milk and butter, but furnish some cream or butter to sell. 

Since there are only three other houses in sight of this farmhouse, 
and there is no store or post office nearer than two and a half miles, 



Fig. 108. 

A fruit orchard in Kansas. 


the farmer and his family may not meet with other persons for sev¬ 
eral days at a time, although they often see acquaintances driving 
by. In the busier season, from spring till fall, they make few trips 
to town. Frequently, however, they have a telephone by which they 
can talk with neighbors and with friends and merchants in town, while 
the rural free delivery system brings the post office to their doors. 

Some persons would not care for such a life because it is too 
lonesome, and there is too much hard work connected with it. But 
this farmer enjoys it greatly, because he likes to take care of his 
stock, to work in the soil, and to watch the crops grow. In addition 
to this, he is able to raise most of his own food, and his whole life is 
more independent than that of persons in a village or city. From 
such farms have come some of our ablest and best-educated men. 
Can you name two Presidents who spent their childhood on farms 
of the Central States ? Where were their homes ? What can you 
tell about their early life ? 

Fruits. — While each farm usually has a small orchard, like the one 
mentioned above, fruit raising is a special industry in those parts where 
climate and soil are favorable, as in the neighborhood of the Great Lakes. 









CEN Tit A L S TA TES 


123 


The immense area of water renders the summers cooler and the winters 
warmer than they would otherwise be. Accordingly, we find the Chau¬ 
tauqua grape belt (p. < 5) extending from New York a long distance into 
Ohio; and quantities of such fruit as peaches and apples are produced on 
the peninsula of Michigan. With what part of the Atlantic coast can this 
fruit region be best compared ? (p. 75.) 

Fine Stock in Kentucky. — Kentucky is famous for its blue grass 
in the neighborhood of Lexington and for its fine stock, especially 
horses and mules. The reason why this grass is so nourishing is that 
the Kentucky soil in this section is composed of bits of decayed lime¬ 
stone in which is found an abundance of lime phosphate, an excellent 
plant food (p. 108). This phosphate is supplied from the shells of 
small sea animals which were buried in the sea bottom millions of 
years ago. As the lime¬ 
stone decays, the phos¬ 
phate mixes with other 
rock bits and thus fertil¬ 
izes the soil. 



Caverns. — The abun¬ 
dance of limestone in Ken¬ 
tucky is the reason for the 
numerous caves that exist 
here. Limestone, although 
hard, is more easily dis¬ 
solved by water than other 
rocks; and as the rain water 
seeps into the earth and en¬ 
ters the limestone along the 
joints, it slowly dissolves 
the rock away. In this 
manner many a long tunnel 
has been made, the largest 
that is known being the 
Mammoth Cave in Ken¬ 
tucky. 

*Nbt all parts of Mam¬ 
moth Cave are yet known, 
but it is said that there 

are more than 150 miles of galleries. They are found to wind about 
irregularly, some being many feet below others, and all together forming 
a network, or labyrinth , into which one dares not venture without a 
guide. The entire cavern is as dark as any mine, and the only sound 
to be heard is that of trickling water. 


Fio. 101). 

view in one of the Kentucky caverns, showing the 
icicle-like stalactites, which are made of limy mat¬ 
ter deposited by the water which slowly trickles 
from the cave roof. 










124 


NORTH AMERICA 


Corn. — Corn raising is one of the most important industries of 
the Central States (Fig. 209, p. 220). A farmer usually expects to 
devote from one third to one half of his land to it; therefore, in 
traveling across these states in summer, one sees corn helds in every 
direction (Fig. 110). 



F:g. 110. 


A field in Kansas entirely given over to corn. 



The seed is planted in rows in the springtime. Soon the little stalk 
appears above ground, growing rapidly during the hot summer months, 
until a height of seven to ten feet is reached. In order to keep the soil 
soft and kill the weeds, the ground between the rows is plowed when 
the corn is young ; but as it grows higher, 
the shade of its own leaves protects it both 
from drought and weeds. 

If the stalk is to be used as fodder for 
cattle in winter, it is cut before frost, when 
the kernels on the cob are still somewhat .soft 
and milky, although much harder than the 
green corn which we eat. If left until after 
frost, the grain hardens, and then the 
harvest season begins. Men drive 
into the fields in wagons, and tear 
the husks from the ear, spending day 
after day at that kind of work. 

Corn is put to many uses. 

Much that is raised is fed to cattle 
and hogs, as already stated. Some 
is made into hominy and breakfast 


foods, or into corn meal for mush 


Two ears of corn, one with the husk 
stripped down to show the kernels. 





















CEN TRAL STATES 


125 


and corn bread. Starch is another product; but one of the most ex¬ 
tensive uses of the grain is in the manufacture of whisky in a distillery. 
I here are many distilleries in St. Louis, Louisville, and other 
cities within the corn belt. Peoria, in central Illinois, is another 
great center for the manufacture of whisky and other materials, 
from corn. Much corn is shipped eastward to the seaboard and 
beyond, and all the cities along the way make profit from handling it. 

Wheat. 1 his grain, like corn, is produced in all the Central 
States as well as in other parts of the country (Fig. 211, p. 221). 
It is an especially important product in Kansas, Ohio, and Indiana; 
but the section which at present is most noted for wheat is the 
valley of the Red River of the North. In this valley is a strip of 
land, including western Minnesota, eastern Dakota, and a portion of 
Manitoba, which is one of the finest wheat regions in the world. 

One of the reasons for its fertility dates back to the time when 
the glacier was melting away from this region. The ice then 
stretched across the Red River valley, and forced that river to seek 
an outlet southward. A broad lake was thus formed, with an ice 
dam on the north, and in the water of this lake the sediment was de¬ 
posited which forms much of the soil of the wheat region. When 
the ice melted entirely away from the valley, the Red River was 
once more able to flow northward, and then the lake disappeared. 

The land there is almost as level as the surface of the sea; 
it is so level, in fact, that after a rain the water stands in shallow 
sheets in the fields. It is necessary to elevate the roads a foot or 
moie abo\ e the surrounding land, with ditches on either side. In 
every direction there is nothing to break the view except a farm¬ 
house every half mile or so, with a few trees around it. Over these 
open plains the wind sweeps with terrific force, somewhat as upon 

the ocean, and fierce, blinding snow squalls, or blizzards , are not 
uncommon. 

t pon these plains one may ride northward on the train toward Winni¬ 
peg all day long, and see scarcely a single crop besides wheat. Most of 
the farms are of moderate size, but some are enormous. For example, the 
Palrymple farm, at Casselton, North Dakota, contains fifteen thousand 
acres. How many square miles is that? 

1 his faun is divided into six parts, with farm buildings upon each. 
To prepare the ground, from fifteen to twenty men at a time plow and 
sow the seed on each division. One takes the lead, the next follows close 
behind, then comes the third, fourth, and so on. The grain is harvested 
on a similar plan (Fig. 112). One hundred and twenty men and three 


126 


NORTH AMERICA 


hundred horses are employed in the planting season, and three hundred 
men during the harvest. As one acre usually produces from fifteen to 
twenty bushels, an immense amount of grain is obtained from this one 
farm. How many pounds per acre would this be ? 

The great quantity of wheat produced in the Red River valley 
of the North and the neighboring region has helped in the growth 
of the cities of Minneapolis, St. Paul, and Duluth, and scores of 
others along the Great Lakes, the Mississippi River, and even on the 
Atlantic coast. 



Fig. 112. 

Harvesting wheat in the Red River valley. 


Other Grains. — Besides corn and wheat, two other grains are raised in 
great quantities in these states ; namely, oats and barley. The former is a 
common food for horses, but the latter is largely used in the manufacture 
of beer, ihe great breweries, to be seen in every large city, consume 
immense quantities of barley in order to obtain the malt which is needed 
in making beer. In Cincinnati and St. Louis, and in many other places, 
beer making is one of the important industries. Milwaukee is also noted 
for beer, much as Peoria is for distilled spirits. 


Cattle Ranching. — After passing westward from the fertile Red 
River valley of the North, one finds the farmhouses diminishing in 
number, and the country becoming more and more arid, until, beyond 
the 100th meridian, there is practically no farming without irrigation. 
At the same time one gradually rises higher and higher, until, near 
the base of the mountains, he has reached an elevation of fully a 
mile above the sea. This dry plateau, extending from Canada to 
southwestern Texas (p. 99), is commonly known as the Great 
Plains. 

The entire semi-arid western third of the western tier of states_ 

fiom lexas to North Dakota— is therefore devoted chiefly to ranch- 













Fig. 113. 


Scenes in the rancli country. Upper picture, a typical ranch house on* the 
banks of a stream in western North Dakota. Middle picture, a ranch 
house and “ the range.” Lower picture, a group of cowboys at the ranch 
house. 


127 



























128 


NORTH AMERICA 


ing. Following is a description of ranch life in western North 
Dakota, which much resembles such life in other states : — 


There is little water anywhere else than in the widely separated streams ; 
and there are almost no trees except upon their banks. As the ranchman 



Fig. 114. 

A scene during a round-up, when great numbers of cattle are bunched together. 


must have both water and timber, he locates his house (Fig. 113), with its 
few stockades or corrals, and sheds, within easy reach of these necessities. 
If there is no neighbor within several miles, it is all the better, for his 
cattle are then more certain of abundant grass. 

A single ranchman may own from ten to twenty thousand head, and 
yet they are all allowed to wander about upon public land, called “ the 



Fig. 115. 


Picture showing the mother with her brand, a calf following her, and a cowboy about to 

catch the calf and brand it. 






CEN TEA L S TA TES 


129 


range." Usually they keep within a distance of thirty miles of the ranch 
house; but sometimes they stray one or two hundred miles away. 

Iwice a year there is a general collection, or round-up (Fig. 114), of 
cattle, — the first round-up occurring in May or June, and the other early 

in the fall. One object of the first is to find the calves that have been born 
during the winter. 

Since there are few fences, cattle belonging to ranches which are even 
a xundred miles apart become mixed during the winter, and those in a 
large herd may belong to a score of different ranchmen. Each cattleman 
has a certain mark, or brand (Fig. 115), such as a letter, a cross, a horse¬ 
shoe, or some other device, which must be burnt into the skin of each of 
the cattle. 

A lound-up, which lasts several weeks, is planned by a number of 
ranchmen together. A squad of perhaps twenty cowboys, accompanied 
by a wagon and provisions, a large number of riding horses, or “ ponies,” 
and a cook, go in one direction, and 
other wagons with similar outfits set 
out in other directions. Before sep¬ 
arating in the morning, the members 
of a squad agree upon a certain camp¬ 
ing place for the night, and then 
they scour the country to bring the 
cattle together, riding perhaps sixty 
or eighty miles during the day. 

Each ranchman knows his own cattle 
by the brand they bear; and since 
the calves follow their mothers (Fig. 

115), there is no difficulty in deter¬ 
mining what brand they shall 
receive. After branding the calves, 
each ranchman drives his cattle 
homeward to feed during the sum¬ 
mer within a few dozen miles of 
their owner's home. 

The second large round-up is 
similar to the first, except that its object is to bring together the steers, or 
male cattle, and ship them away to market; it is accordingly called the 
beef round-up. A ranchman who owns twenty thousand cattle may sell 
nearly half that number in a season. As the steers are collected they are 
loaded upon trains and shipped to Omaha, Kansas City, St. Louis, 
Chicago, and even farther east. Millions of cattle are slaughtered every 
year in these cities (Fig. 122), and the meat is sent to England and Ger¬ 
many, as well as to all parts of the United States. 

Very often the cattle find so little water, and such poor pasturage, that 
they fail to fatten properly, and must be fed for a time. This may be 
done upon the irrigated fields near the rivers in the ranch country, or on 
the farms farther east, as in Kansas, Iowa, and Nebraska, and even in Illi- 



Fig. 11(>. 


A cowboy with his rope, or lariat , with 
which lie captures the cattle by throwing 
a noose over their necks or around their 
legs. 




130 


NORTH AMERICA 


nois, Indiana, and Ohio. Thus we see how a great product of one section 
of the United States is made to furnish employment and food for millions 
of persons far away. 

The lives of ranchmen and cowboys are exciting and interesting, most 
of each day being spent in the saddle (Fig. 116). They are so far sepa¬ 
rated from other people that they must take care of themselves in a sur¬ 
prising number of ways. For instance, a ranchman must build his own 
house, kill his own beef and dress it, put up his own ice, raise his own 
vegetables, do his own blacksmithing, find his own fuel, and even keep 
school for his children if the latter receive an education. He affords a 
good example of the pioneer life in early days. 

Lumbering. — Although so much of the land is under cultivation, 
or given over to ranching, forests are found in many sections. When 



Fig. 117. 

Floating timber on a stream in Wisconsin. 


the region was first visited, most of Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Mich¬ 
igan was tree-covered, as well as much of Ohio, southern Indiana, 
and Illinois, and the Black Hills of western South Dakota. Even 
now some forest is left, although there lias been so much lumbering 
that large areas have been entirely cleared. 

In Wisconsin, for instance, in traveling northward from the well- 
cultivated southern portion, one comes to a section where farmers are 
just taking the place of lumbermen. Many log huts stand there in 
small clearings, with the green fields still dotted by tree stumps ; but 
beyond, little else than woods can be seen. In these forests are many 
different kinds of northern trees, especially the evergreens, such as 

hemlock, spruce, white pine, and cedar, and scattered hardwoods, 
such as oak, birch, and maple. 

In the neighborhood of the Great Lakes lumbering is actively 
carried on, and in much the same manner as in Maine (Fig. 11T) 










CEN Til A L S TA TES 


131 


although a great deal of the timber is brought to the sawmills 
by wagons or rail, instead of being floated a long distance down 
.stream. The excellent water power in the Mississippi River at 
Minneapolis early attracted large sawmills and made that city- 
famous for lumber (Fig. 127, p. 141). Other mills are situated 
farther down the Mississippi, as at Winona. They are also numer¬ 
ous at Duluth, and at Superior, which is just across the state line 
in Wisconsin. 

Near the forest regions, along the streams and on the shores of 
the Great Lakes, the manufacture of furniture and other articles of 
wood is an important industry. Chicago is especially noted for its 



Fig. 118 . 


A sawmill in Wisconsin. 


manufacture of furniture ; and on many of the small streams of Min¬ 
nesota, Wisconsin (Fig. 118), and Michigan, where there is water 
power, there are sawmills, furniture factories, and planing mills. 
Some of these are at La Crosse and Oshkosh in Wisconsin, and 
Saginaw, Bay City, and Grand Rapids in Michigan. Many 
school desks are made at the last place. 


Mineral Products 

Building Stone. — It has been stated (pp. 3 and 5) that the ocean once 
covered much of this section, and that layers of sediment deposited under 
the water have hardened into rock strata, which have been raised to form 
the dry land. During their uplifting they were not folded and broken, as 














132 


NORTH AMERICA 


mountain rocks are, but the layers were left in a horizontal position, as 
when first laid down in the ocean. The streams, cutting their valleys 
downward through the soil, have brought many of these rock strata to 
light, and among them are beds of limestone and sandstone which are of 
value as building stones. 

Ohio and Indiana are especially noted for their limestone and sand¬ 
stone, which are shipped in all directions for building purposes. There 
are also slates and granites in the hilly and mountainous sections, as there 
are in hilly and mountainous New England (p. 53). 

Petroleum and Natural Gas. — Power for manufacturing is also 
abundantly provided in this region. When oil and natural gas were 
first discovered in New York and Pennsylvania, it was supposed that 
they did not exist elsewhere; but great quantities of both these sub¬ 
stances are now obtained in Ohio, Indiana, West Virginia, Texas, 
Kansas, Oklahoma, California, and other states. Many farmers whose 
land is capable of producing only the usual crops have suddenly 
become rich by the discovery of oil or gas in the rocks far beneath 
the soil. In fact, these materials are so abundant in some places, 
that towns have sprung up like mushrooms, — as Findlay in western 
Ohio. The way in which gas and oil are formed, and the uses to 
which they are put, have already been described (p. 78). 

Coal. — This mineral fuel is much more widespread in the Cen¬ 
tral States than oil and gas. In some places the beds lie near the 
surface, like rock in quarries, and then coal mining is very simple; 
in others it is buried so deep that long shafts must be sunk to reach 
it. Being so valuable a fuel for houses and manufactories, the coal 
is mined in many places. 

While Pennsylvania produces two kinds of coal, anthracite and 
bituminous, the Central States have only the latter variety. It is 
bituminous coal that is used in making coke; and because there is 
so much of this kind of coal, many of the cities of these states are 
engaged in iron manufacturing. Soft coal produces more smoke 
than the hard anthracite, and those cities which burn great quanti¬ 
ties of it are very sooty in consequence. 

Iron Ore. — Formerly Pennsylvania was the chief iron-producing 
state, having both coal and iron ore ; but in recent years explorers 
in the forest wilderness northwest of Lake Michigan, and near the 
western end of Lake Superior, have discovered what seem to be inex¬ 
haustible beds of iron ore. In some places the ore is so soft that, 
like clay, it can be dug out by steam shovels, and so near the surface 


CENTRAL STATES 


133 



that the mines are open pits (Fig. 119). That is the case, for ex¬ 
ample, at Ishpeming, ill northern Michigan. 

1 his Lake Superior district is now the leading iron-producing 
center in the world. Ihe main difficulty, however, is the fact that 
there is no coal in 
that region. Con¬ 
sequently, in order 
that the ore may be 
reduced to the 
metal, either coal 
must be trans¬ 
ported thither, or 
the ore must be 
carried to the coal 
regions. The lat¬ 
ter process lias 
proved the cheaper. 


Fortunately the 
ore deposits are 
located near water¬ 
ways. 

The ore is mined, loaded upon cars, and sent over short lines of railway 
to the lake shore, where it is distributed by vessels to manufacturing-centers. 


Fia. 119. 

An open iron mine. 


Boats 

SUPERIOl 


with such a cargo set out from the lake ports of Duluth, 
L Ashland, and Marquette for manufacturing centers 



Fig. 120. 

Iron ore docks at Conneant, Ohio. 







NORTH AMERICA 


134 

all along the lakes. As the ore must reach a point where coal is 
easily obtained, it is taken to Chicago, Detroit, Cleveland, 
Buffalo, etc. Notice how close to these cities the coal beds ex¬ 
tend (Fig. 220). 

The Lake Superior iron district is in three states, — Michigan, 
Wisconsin, and Minnesota, the most important being Michigan 
(Fig. 222), and the least important Wisconsin. These three states 
together produce seventeen times as much ore as Pennsylvania. 
The sudden development of mining in this region has brought so 
many people that numerous towns and cities have grown up; but 
the lack of coal has prevented much iron manfacturing. 

Copper. — Another very important metal found in the Central 
States is copper. This occurs in the pores of a lava rock and 
between the grains of a pebble beach which, though now hardened 
into rock, was formed in the ancient sea. Indians and the early 
explorers found fragments of copper on the surface, and mines were 
later opened in the lava and beach rocks of the small peninsula 
marked Mineral Range on the map (Fig. 104). 

Some of these mines are very deep, one of the shafts reaching to a 
depth of about a mile. When the ore is drawn to the surface, it is found 
mixed with so much beach rock and lava, that it must be crushed to a 
powder under powerful hammers, or stamps; then water is run over it in 
order to carry away the bits of rock and leave the heavier particles of 
copper. Even after this, some foreign substances are still mixed witli the 
copper. Since the purposes for which this metal is used demand that it 
be very pure, it must next be placed in a large smelter to be melted and 
thus separated from the impurities. Among the latter is a little silver, 
which is saved. The pure copper is allowed to run out of the furnace 
and cool in bars to be shipped away. 

The largest mines in this region are near together, and so many men 
are required to obtain the ore, and change it to pure metal, that towns of 
large size have grown up in a wilderness which otherwise could scarcely 
have attracted many people. Within a few miles of tw r o or three of the 
most important mines is a number of towns having a total population of 
fifty thousand, the largest being Calumet. Many of these persons are 
miners and families of miners ; but there must, of course, be storekeepers, 
physicians, teachers, ministers, etc.,-and they all depend for a living upon 
the precious copper buried far beneath the surface. 

Copper is valuable in many ways. It is one of the metals used 
to make lnonze, and also brass; but of late years the wide introduc¬ 
tion of electricity has created a new and even greater demand for this 


CENTRAL STATES 


135 


metal. Since copper is a substance which transmits electricity with 
muc 1 less resistance than other common metals, it is the best 
material for trolley wires, the wire of long distance telephones, 
f ectn , c bells 111 llouses ’ etc. in every city in the land much copper 

As in the case of iron ore, the metal is shipped to points along the 
lakes, and elsewhere, by water and by rail, much of it going to the 
metal manufactories in the New England cities (p. 61). Name some 
goods that must be shipped into this section instead of away from it. 

Lead, Zinc, etc. — Lead and zinc, two other metals found in the 
Central States, occur together in pockets and little veins, in layers of 
limestone. The ores are mined in many places, as at Joplin, Missouri, 

and then sent to the proper kind of furnaces, where the pure metals are 
extracted. 

A large part of our supply of lead and zinc is obtained from Missouri, 
Kansas, Wisconsin, and Iowa, the first-named state producing more zinc 
than any other in the Union. For what purposes are lead and zinc used ? 
Of what use should you think this lead was to the early pioneers? 

Besides these metals, gold is mined in considerable quantities in the 
Black Hills in the extreme western part of South Dakota. 

Much salt is also obtained in the Central States, especially in Michi¬ 
gan and Kansas. 

Clays. — The deep soil left in the prairie states by the glacier is often 
a clay which is useful in the manufacture of bricks; and, as in other 
sections of the country (p. 83), there are many brickyards, especially 
neai the large cities, from this same kind of clay, other articles, such as 
flowei pots and drain pipes, are manufactured. During recent years, 
when d lain age of farm land has become so common, the manufacture of 
tile foi that purpose has developed into a great industry, many a small 
tow n having a tile factory. These objects are made in much the same man- 
nei as biick (p. 8.>), except that the clay is pressed into other forms. 

There is a number of places where fine pottery also is made. For 
instance, the very high grade, known as ltookwood ware, is manufactured 
in Cincinnati. The best of clay is needed for this, and some of it must 
be brought from a distance. CL lie first step in making a vase is to wet a 
lump of clay so that it may easily be molded. Then it is shaped upon a 
rapidly revolving wheel, known as the potter’s wheel (Fig. 74), which has 
been in use for centuries. There it is whirled rapidly round while a man 
molds it with his hands, in a very few minutes changing a shapeless 
lump into a delicately formed vase. It must then be baked. After the 
baking, flowers or other ornaments may he painted upon it. The surface 
is finally covered with a substance which, when baked, produces a glaze. 
One of the beauties of the Kookwood ware is the peculiar color of the 
glaze, which is a dark brown or yellowdsh brown. 


136 


NORTH AMERICA 


Principal Cities and Shipping Routes 

It is evident that the raw products of the farms, ranches, forests, 
and mines in the Central States must lead to much commerce; and 
that, since coal is included among the raw products, manufacturing 
must also be developed. This means, of course, that there must be 
many large cities; and since the Central States have no ocean coast, 
we naturally find them along the Great Lakes and the three great 
rivers, — the Mississippi, Ohio, and Missouri, — where it is possible to 
ship goods by water. Let us first consider those along the Great 
Lakes. 

THE LAKE CITIES 

Duluth and Superior. — At the western end of Lake Superior there 
is a fine, large harbor, one side being in Minnesota, the other in Wis¬ 
consin. Upon this harbor are two cities, Duluth and Superior, 



Fig. 121. 

Lake vessels, the one in front being called a wlialeback. 


which together have a total population of about one hundred 
thousand. The chief products of this vicinity are iron, lumber, and 
wheat, which are shipped eastward in immense quantities from these 
two ports. Owing to the neighborhood of the Minnesota and 
Dakota wheat fields, there are enormous elevators at Duluth for 
storing grain, and flour mills for grinding it up. The iron ore 
docks, sawmills, and lumber wharves are also busy places. 

Goods are shipped to this point as well as away from it; for while the 
people in this section have some materials to spare, they also need many 
others, as farming implements, clothing, various kinds of food, furniture 
and coal. These goods are brought cheaply, because the vessels carrying 







CENTRAL STATES 


137 


ore, wheat, and lumber eastward must have something to bring back. As 
alieady suggested (p. 83), it is the needs and products of the inhabitants 
ol this distant region that help to make Buffalo, Montreal, and New York 
so important, and to keep the mills and factories of New England so busy. 
Explain how this is true. 

At the outlet of Lake Superior into Lake Huron there are rapids which 
interfere with navigation; and to avoid these a ship canal, called the Sault 

Ste. Marie, or “ Soo, ’ canal, has been dug. On its banks is a city of the 
same name. 


Chicago. — While Lake Superior extends far into the Central 
States in one direction, Lake Michigan reaches a long way in 
another; and near its southern extremity, in Illinois, the great 
city of Chicago is situated. At this point the small Chicago 
River empties into the lake, forming a small harbor, and in 
early times a fort was located there. The harbor itself was formed 
thousands of years ago while the great glacier was melting away. 
At that time the ice sheet lay across Lake Michigan, forming a huge 
dam which prevented the waters from flowing into Lake Huron and 
the St. Lawrence River. This compelled the water to find an outlet 
southward, past the present site of Chicago, and into the Illinois 
River and the Mississippi. It was the wash of this water which 
dug out the small harbor. 

As the West developed, this site proved to be a most advanta¬ 
geous one; for whenever a railway was built from the East to the 
Northwest, from any place north of Washington, it was necessary 
for it to pass around the southern end of Lake Michigan. Of course, 
as the city grew in size, other railways were built to it because it was 
large; and now they approach it from the East, West, North, and 
South (Fig. 105). 

Chicago is the nearest lake port to the most productive grain 
region in the world, and it is therefore an important shipping point 
for grain. It is also within easy reach of the coal fields, while 
lumber and iron ore are readily brought to it by boat. These facts 
have caused Chicago to grow with wonderful rapidity, so that it has 
long since outgrown its small natural harbor, which has been en¬ 
larged by extensive breakwaters. In the year 1840, there were but 
4470 inhabitants; in 1870, 300,000; in 1900, 1,(398,575. To-day 
Chicago is the second city in size in the New World. 

Stock Yards of Chicago. — Chicago is not only a great grain 
market, but also the most important meat market in the world. All 


11—a o 


138 


NORTH AMERICA 


the grazing states of the West ship stock to this point, and in the 
city itself nearly a square mile is taken up by the Union Stock Yards, 
consisting of large sheds, pens with high fences, and troughs for food 
and water (Fig. 122). Train loads of cattle, hogs, and sheep are 
unloaded there every day. The work employs about thirty thousand 
men, which indicates how extensive it is. 

The products of the packing houses are several. By far the 
most important is meat; and so well developed is the industry that 
most of the cities of the East are furnished with fresh meat from 



Fig. 122. 

The Chicago stock yards. 


the Western cities. It may be several weeks after the meat is pre¬ 
pared for food before it reaches the table ; yet all this time it is kept 
fresh by the use of ice. Special refrigerator cars are constructed 
for the purpose of carrying it. 

Besides what is sold fresh, a great deal is canned. The fat of 
the hog is made into lard, and not a little beef fat is converted into 
imitation butter, such as oleomargarine. From the bones, also, 
valuable products are obtained. Many of the bones are burned and 
used in the manufacture of sugar (p. 106); and the horns and hoofs 
are of use in making gelatine and glue. 

The hides are made into shoes, gloves, harness, and other goods. 
From the Western packing houses the great shoe factories of Lynn, 
Haverhill, and Brockton, in Massachusetts, as well as those in other 
parts of the country, are supplied with much of their leather. The 






CENTRAL STATES 


139 



hides, however, must first be sent to tanneries. One of the prin¬ 
cipal places for tanneries is Milwaukee, which is supplied with 
tannic acid from the bark of the hemlock tree that grows in the 
forests of Wisconsin. 

Nothing is wasted in the 
packing business; even 
the bristles of the hog are 
saved to make brushes; 
and the hair removed from 
the hides of cattle is valu¬ 
able in making plaster. 

Manufacturing in Chi¬ 
cago.— Being near the 
forest regions, Chicago has 
become a lumber market; 
and iron ore is also easily 
brought by boat. There¬ 
fore, the opportunities for 
manufacturing are excel¬ 
lent; for, although there is no natural water power in that vicinity, 
vast coal fields are not far away. 


Fig. 123. 

A lake steamer at Chicago. 


Other Facts about Chicago.—The sewage from the city has heretofore 
been emptied into Lake Michigan; but as the drinking water must be 
taken from the lake, it became necessary to dispose of the sewage in some 
other way. For that purpose an immense drainage canal has recently 
been completed (Fig. 104), connecting Lake Michigan with the Illinois 
Liver, and thus setting the current toward the Mississippi and the Gulf 
of Mexico. This drainage canal, which is wide and deep enough for 
vessels, will undoubtedly develop into a ship canal. In that case, large 
boats may reach Chicago from the Gulf of Mexico as they now do from 
the Gulf of St. Lawrence. What effect would this have upon the city ? 

One of the chief educational institutions is the University of Chicago 
(Fig. 124 a), established in 1890, another is the Northwestern University 
(Fig. 124n) at Evanston, a suburb of Chicago. Mention some other large 
universities. 


Other Cities along the Lakes. — Other great cities along the lakes 
are engaged in many of the same industries as Chicago, and need 
not be so fully described. Milwaukee (Fig. 105), the largest in 
Wisconsin, deals extensively in grain, lumber, and leather, packs 
much pork, and manufactures a great quantity of flour and machin¬ 
ery. Its immense breweries have already been mentioned (p. 12(3). 












Fig. 124 a. 

Mitchell Tower, University of Chicago, from Hull Court, looking east. 







Fig. 124 b. 

University Hall, Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill. 














Fig. 123 a. 

“ Fe Conte Oaks,” University of California. 



Fig. 123 b. 

View of Arcade, Leland Stanford University 




























140 


NORTH AMERICA 


Detroit (Fig. 105), the largest city in Michigan, is also on the 
Great Lakes water route. The name is a French word for strait. 
Why suitable here ? All vessels going east or west must pass this 
city ; and some of the railway trains from eastern Canada to Chi¬ 
cago and the West are ferried across the strait at this narrow point. 
Detroit is consequently a shipping and manufacturing center, deal¬ 
ing in grain, wool, pork, and ores from the West, and making iron 
and steel goods, such as cars, stoves, etc. 

Not far awa} 7 , at Ann Arbor, is the University of Michigan, one of 
the largest educational institutions in the United States. It is supported 
by the state; in fact, state universities are established in most of the 
Central, Southern, and Western States. 

On the lake shore in Ohio the chief cities are Toledo and 
Cleveland (Fig. 105). The former has extensive flour mills and 
iron manufactories ; and the latter, which is much the larger, 
and larger than either Cincinnati, Detroit, or Buffalo, has an 
important trade in grain, lumber, and ore. Being near the coal 
and petroleum fields, Cleveland is extensively engaged in manu¬ 
facturing machinery and furniture, in refining petroleum, and in 
ship building for the lake commerce. It is one of the busiest and 
most rapidly growing of the lake cities. 

THE RIVER CITIES 

Cities along the Mississippi. — The largest city on the rivers, 
corresponding to Chicago on the lakes, is St. Louis in Missouri 

(Fig. 104). It lias a very 
favorable position in the 
center of the productive 
Mississippi Valley. This, 
together with the fact 
that it is situated on the 
Mississippi near the mouth 
of its two largest tribu¬ 
taries, secures for it a large 
amount of trade both by 
water and by rail. The 
railway bridges across the 
Mississippi at this point have also had an immense influence on 
the growth of the city. 



Fig. 126. 

The Pillsbury-Washburn flour mills at Minneapolis. 












CENTHAL STATES 


141 


Like Chicago, St. Louis is an important market for grain and live 
stock; but being so far south, it also trades extensively in Southern 
products, especially cotton and tobacco. This city is also a noted 
mule and horse market, and a great manufacturing center. It manu¬ 
factures immense quantities of tobacco, beer, flour, boots, shoes, 
clothing, and hardware. 

formerly Chicago and St. Louis were almost the only noted 
markets for grain and live stock in the West; but in later years 
several other cities have become prominent in that section. Two of 
these are the “twin cities,” Minneapolis and St. Paul (Fig. 104). 
The latter, the capital of Minnesota, is a trade center. From it the 
products of the West are sent eastward and southward, while 
farming implements, furniture, clothing, and other articles are 
distributed among the smaller towns of the vast farming region 
round about. 

Minneapolis, only ten miles distant, is situated at the Falls of 
St. Anthony, which furnish splendid water power. It is also in the 



Fig. 127. 

Logs in the river near Minneapolis. One of the bridges across the Mississippi River at this 

point is seen in the background. 

# 


midst of the wheat region ; and this, with its water power, has caused 
Minneapolis to become the leading flour-producing center in America. 
In the city are many grain elevators and flour mills (Fig. 126). 


One of these flour mills, belonging to the Pillsbury-Washburn Com¬ 
pany, is the largest in the world. Steam shovels scoop the grain from 
the trains very rapidly, emptying a car of 750 bushels in eighteen to 
nineteen minutes. All straw, useless seeds, sticks, etc., must first be 
separated from the grain, and then it passes through many different ma¬ 
chines before the pure flour is produced. During this process it must 


























142 


NORTH AMERICA 


be raised to the top of the building twelve different times, being carried up 
by rapidly moving belts having many small buckets, or pockets, attached. 

In making flour a thin covering called bran is first removed from the 
outside of the kernels. Between this covering and the center is the part 
from which the line flour is made, and the center is the germ which is 
separated and used as a breakfast food. All this is accomplished by machin¬ 
ery, as is the sacking, or barreling, and loading on the cars. 

What have you already learned about the influence of St. Anthony’s 
Balls on the lumber industry of Minneapolis? 

Cities along the Missouri, —The leading cities on the Missouri 
River are Omaha in Nebraska and Kansas City (Fig. 104) in 
western Missouri. Each is surrounded by a fertile farming country 



Fig. 128. 


Hogs in Kansas being fattened for the market. 


which produces much grain. Each is also a market for cattle, sheep, 
and horses raised near by and in the semi-arid region farther west. 
Being so near the ranch country, both of these cities have a certain 
advantage over St. Louis and Chicago, and their meat-packing indus¬ 
try is gaining rapidly each year. This industry is most important 
at Kansas Cixi r , Kansas. 


Southwest of Omaha is Lincoln, the capital of Nebraska; and across 
the river in Iowa is Council Bluffs, an important center for farming 
implements. Several cities northwest of this point are chiefly important 
as trade centers. Find some of them on the map. On the river above 
Kansas C ity is St. Joseph in Missouri, and below it is Jefferson City 
the capital of that state. Opposite is Kansas City, Kansas. Farther 











CENTRAL STATES 


143 


rf;W ichita, and Topeka the capital. Since we know 

* ° f . thls sectlon > !t 1S clear why most of the larger cities are 
ctnteis foi stock, grain, and. flour. 


Cities in the Ohio Valley. — In the Middle Atlantic States, the 
cities of the upper Ohio — Pittsburg, Allegheny, and Wheeling — 

owe their importance largely to coal and iron, and to the fact that 
river boats can reach them. 

Farther down, Cincinnati (Fig. 104), the largest river port in 
the state of Ohio, is a great manufacturing center. Besides pottery 



Fio. 129. 


River boats on the Ohio at Cincinnati. 


(p. 135), this city manufactures large quantities of iron, machinery, 
and clothing. Columbus, the capital, is an important trade center, 
and manufactures carriages, wagons, and other articles. The reasons 
why this city is engaged in the manufacture of carriages and farm 
machinery are, first, the presence of the necessary raw materials, 
such as iron ore, coal, and hard wood ; and, secondly, the many 
farms upon which these articles are needed. 

Farther down the river is Louisville, the largest city in Ken¬ 
tucky. There are rapids in the Ohio at this point, and a canal leads 























144 


NORTH AMERICA 


around them. Besides being a center for tobacco, like Richmond 
and St. Louis, Louisville manufactures iron goods, farming imple¬ 
ments, flour, and leather goods. It is also a railway center. 

Evansville, the largest river port in Indiana, is principally 
engaged in the manufacture of flour, machinery, and leather goods. 
Indianapolis, the capital and metropolis of Indiana, is in the midst 
of a splendid farming district. It is a railway and trade center like 
Columbus, and handles much grain, lumber, and furniture. 


QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 

Review Questions and Topics. — (1) Describe the physiography: — the 
plains; the mountains; the prairies ; the soil. (2) What about the climate of the 
section? (3) I ell about the settlement of the Mississippi Valley: — first pioneers; 
use of the livers ; steamboats ; canals and railways; rapid settlement in later years ; 
population. (4) Describe the farm in Ohio :— its size; the buildings; the prod¬ 
ucts ; life on the farm. Would you care to live there? Why? (5) What fruits 
are raised, and where? (G) Where is tobacco raised, and what cities are engaged 
in its manufacture? (7) What kinds of stock are raised in Kentucky? What is 
the reason for their fine grade ? (8) Describe the Mammoth Cave. (9) Tell about 
corn : —the planting; the care of the field; uses of corn; cities which handle the 
com. (10) Where is wheat raised? (11) Describe the Red River valley of the 
North. (12) Tell about wheat raising on the Dalrymple farm. (13) What cities 
have been influenced by this wheat region ? (14) What other grains are raised ? 
For what are they used ? In what cities ? (15) Describe cattle ranching : — where 
carried on ; reason ; the cattle ranch ; wandering of the cattle ; object and nature 
of the spring round-up; of the beef round-up; what is done with the cattle; the 
life of the cowboys. (16) Where are the forests? (17) What kinds of trees are 
found? (18) How is the lumbering carried on ? (19) What cities are engaged 

in lumbering? In the manufacture of articles from wood? (20) What is the 
origin of the building stones? What kinds are found ? Where? (21) Where 
are oil and gas obtained? Of what use are they? (22) Where is coal found? 
To what uses put? (23) Tell about the iron mining: —its development; nature 
of the ore; where sent; reason; manner of loading the vessels; cities sent from 
and shipped to; states producing it. (24) Study about copper : — where found; 
low found, mining; obtaining the metal from the ore; towns near the mines* 
uses of copper. (25) What other minerals are obtained ? Where? (^6) What 

P wu UCtS are manufactured ? ( 27 ) Where is Rookwood ware toade ? How ? 

(-8) \\ here are the principal cities to be looked for? Why? (29) What cities 
at the western end of Lake Superior ? For what are they important? (30) Give 
the reasons for the location of Chicago and its wonderful growth. (31) Describe 
meat packing in Chicago. (32) To what uses are the various products put? 
( 3) What manufacturing is carried on in Chicago? Why? (34) State some 
o iet acts about Chicago. (35) Briefly enumerate the important facts about Chi- 

tanto mi v hat ° the f Great Lake cities are there? For what is each impor- 

J [ P M i the Ri ™r, and tell for what each is 

impoitant. (38) Describe flour milling. (39) Name the cities along the Missouri. 

1 what is each important? (40) Do the same for the Ohio valley. 



Fig. 130. 

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Map to show the location of San Francisco, Portland, Tacoma, and Seattle. 






















































CENTRAL STATES 


145 


the Erie Canal ? 
As you study each 


Review by States: Ohm (O.).-(l) Name the four largest cities. (Anpen- 

Ohi’r!”' 1V V1 'l '?, e V e “ hl0Cated? Why there ? (2) What other cities of 
no aie mentioned? For what is each important? (8) Why is there much 

manufacturing in this state ? (4) What other industries are mentioned in the 

Std i " T ,e T ps (FigS - 200 t0 216 > in 0lder to see what crops are 

raised ill Oluo. (6) In what ways are the cities of Ohio dependent upon New 

Oileans and New y° rk ? How are the latter cities dependent upon those in 
Ohio. (/) Of what service to Cleveland and Toledo is 
(-S) Draw a sketch map of Ohio like that of Maine (p. 65). 
state do the same. 

Inrhami (Ind.). — (0) Examine the maps (Figs. 209 to 216) to see what crops 
are produced in Indiana. (10) Which is the largest city? For what noted? 

y 1 / , at °* he f * Clt,es were mentioned? (12) What are the industries of 
Indiana. (Id) Examine the relief map to see if the relief seems favorable to 

farming. AMiat other Central States resemble this in relief? (14) Of what im- 

poitance was the fact that so large a part of this section was treeless when dis¬ 
covered ? 

Kentucky (A.?/.). (15) Why should this state be better adapted to tobacco 

raising than Ohio? (16) Of what importance is the limestone of Kentucky’ 
(W) Where are most of the cities ? Why there ? (IS) What products are men¬ 
tioned from Kentucky? (19) Which is the largest city? For what important? 
(20) What other cities are mentioned ? 

Illinois {III.). — (21) What industries are mentioned from this state ? (22) Ex¬ 
amine the maps (Figs. 209 to 216) to see what crops are raised. (23) Why is there 
much manufacturing in Illinois? What kinds are carried on ? (24) Of what value 
is the lake to manufacturing? (25) State the reasons why Chicago has developed 
so greatly. (26) What other cities are mentioned in this state? For what is each 
important? (27) In the Appendix (pp. iv-vii) find the population of the three 
laigest cities of each of the four states so far reviewed, and compare them. 
(28) Which of these four states is the largest? Which smallest? (Appendix,p. iii.) 

Michigan {Mich.). (29) hat lakes does this state border ? Of what advan¬ 
tage is this? (30) What disadvantage can you see in the fact that water separates 
the lower from the upper peninsula of Michigan? (31) Ice stops lake traffic in 
winter. W hat effect must this have? (32) Into what waters does this state 
drain? Contrast this with the other states. (33) Where are most of the large 
cities? Why there? (34) For what is each important? (35) Give the reasons 
for the location of Detroit. (36) What are the important products of Michigan? 

Wisconsin { Wis.). — (37) Which is the largest city in this state? For what 
important? (38) What other cities are mentioned in the text? What is done in 
each? (39) Compare Wisconsin with Michigan in relief; in industries; in min¬ 
eral products; in crops; in the size of cities. (40) What effect must the lakes 
have upon the climate? Would this influence be greater or less than in Michigan ? 

M hy ? (41) If there v r ere coal beds in northern Wisconsin, what effect might it 

have upon Chicago, Cleveland, and the coal mining of Pennsylvania? 

Minnesota {Minn.). — (42) Where does the Mississippi River rise? (43) What 
oceans receive the waters that fall upon Minnesota? Through what rivers? 
(44) What industries are carried on in this state? (45) What crops are raised? 
(46) Name the three largest cities, and tell why each is important. (47) Ilow 
does the largest compare with Boston? With Cincinnati? 

Iowa {la .).— (48) Examine the maps (Figs. 209 to 216) to see what crops 
are raised in this state. (49) \\ hat other important industries are carried on? 


146 


NORTH AMERICA 


(50) Name the largest cities. For what are they noted? (51) Much corn is 
raised here; what must be done with it? 

Missouri (Mo.). — (52) Examine Figures 209 to 216 to see how the crops of 
Missouri differ from those of Minnesota. Why is there this difference ? (53) Why 

are so few towns found in the southwestern part? (54) Name and locate the two 
largest cities. For what is each important? (55) What other citifes are men¬ 
tioned? (56) Find the population of St. Louis; compare it with New York, 
Chicago, Philadelphia, and Boston. (57) Give reasons for its great size. 

Kansas (Kan .).— (58) Why are the cities in the eastern part? (59) What 
are the industries of the west? Why? (60) What crops are raised in Kansas? 
(Figs. 212 to 218.) (61) Name the principal cities. For what is each noted? 

Nebraska (Neb.). — (62) How do the industries of Nebraska compare with 
those of Kansas? Why? (63) How are these states alike in regard to location of 
cities? (64) What cities in Nebraska are mentioned? (65) For what is Omaha 
noted? Why may we expect it to increase in importance in this respect? 

North and South Dakota (N.D. and S.D .).— (66) These two states were 
formerly the territory of Dakota. What reason can you see for making two states 
out of the one territory? (67) How r do the industries of the two states compare 
with those of Nebraska and Kansas? (68) Look at the corn and wheat maps 
(Figs. 209 and 211) to see where most wheat and corn are produced. Is North 
Dakota more or less important than Kansas as a corn-producing state? Answer 
the same for wheat. Tell why this is so. (69) Of what advantage would it be to 
Fargo if a deep river extended from that city to Duluth ? (70) What do the Black 

Hills contribute to the wealth of South Dakota? 

General. — (71) Which state is the largest in this group? (Appendix, p. iii.) 
Which smallest? Compare each of these with Mass., R.I., N.Y., N.C., an d Tex. 

(72) Which of the Central States has the most inhabitants? (Appendix, p. iii.) 
Which the fewest? Compare each of these with Mass., ILL, N.Y., N.C., and Tex. 

(73) Find the ten largest cities. (Appendix, pp. iv-vi.) How does their popula¬ 
tion compare with that of the ten largest in the other groups of states ? 

Suggestions. — (1) Write a brief description of the Western prairies. 
(2) Find how much earlier in the fall frosts come in Minneapolis than in Mem¬ 
phis. (3) Mention several advantages of farm life over city life. (4) How do 
farms that you have seen differ from the Ohio farm described in the text? 
(5) Find other uses of corn besides those mentioned. (6) How does the wind 
often help ranch cattle to obtain food in winter? (7) What are some of the ad¬ 
ventures that cowboys experience ? (8) Why are coal and brick especially valuable 
in a prairie country? (9) Examine a brickyard, and write a description of brick 
making. (10) See how long a list you can make of articles manufactured partly 
or wholly out of copper. (11) Do the same in regard to lead. (12) How are 
the advantages of the location of Chicago somewhat similar to those of Atlanta? 
(13) Make a drawing of the great water route from Duluth to New York City, 
and put in the leading cities. What states border on this route? (14) Make 
a drawing of the Mississippi, Missouri, and Ohio rivers, and include the leading 
cities. What, states do these rivers border or passthrough? (15) State clearly 
the advantages of these waterways. (16) Make a sketch map of the Central 
States, including the principal lakes, rivers, and cities. 

For References, see Teacher's Book. 


IX. THE WESTERN STATES 


Early Settlements. — "VV liile the pioneers were settling 1 the prai- 
1 ies of the Central States, almost nothing was known about the Far 
\\ est. I lie Spanish had. taken possession of the southern portion, 
and many of their names are still retained, as New Mexico, Los 
Angeles, and San trancisco. In 1848 gold was discovered in the 



Fig. 133. 


Santa Barbara Mission, Southern California. Still used as a place of worship. 


stream gravels of California, and hundreds of thousands of persons 
left farms, factories, and homes in a mad rush for the gold fields. 
Some sailed all the way around South America; others crossed the 
Isthmus of Panama; but many traveled overland, running the risk 
of attack from Indians and of death from thirst. There were then no 
railways west of the Mississippi, and the journey was long and tedious. 

147 

















148 


NORTH AMERICA 



For ages the rocks of the Sierra Nevada Mountains had been crumbling 
and washing away, but the gold which they contained lodged in the hollows 
and crevices of the rocky beds of the streams. 

It was this gold that the early gold hunters, or prospectors , were 
seeking, and they obtained it in a very simple manner. Placing some of 
the stream gravel in a pan of water, they rocked it back and forth in 


Fig. 134. 

A railway winding about as it crosses the Rocky Mountains. 

such a way as to cause the heavier particles of gold to separate from the 
gravel, while the lighter minerals were washed away. The prospectors 
were sometimes rewarded by finding large lumps of gold, called nuggets, 
worth hundreds and even thousands of dollars. 

The discovery of gold quickly drew so many persons to Califor 
nia that the territory was able to enter the Union as a state in 1850; 
and, as the search for the precious metal was carried farther and 
faitliei, the W est soon became explored and settled. Railways were 
built across the mountains (Fig. 134), and many industries, such as 
farming, lumbering, and ranching, have followed mining. Indeed, 
in many sections these industries are now much more important than 
even gold and silver mining. 



the western states 


149 




Fig. 135. 

Mt. Hood, Oregon. 


Physiography. I lie A\ estern States are made up largely of pla¬ 
teaus and mountains. The greater part of the surface is more than 
a mile above sea level, 
while some mountain 
peaks are two and three 
miles in height. 

The extreme eastern 
portion is a continuation 
of the Great Plains (p. 

126), which reach to the 
very base of the Rocky 
Mountains. These moun¬ 
tains extend entirely 
across the country 
into Mexico on the south and Canada on the north. They are 
made up of a large number of ranges and ridges, which attain their 
greatest height in Colorado. A long distance farther west, and 

almost parallel with the Rockies, 
is another system of mountains, 
called the Sierra Nevada Moun¬ 
tains in California and the Cas¬ 
cade Ranges in Oregon and 
Washington. Still farther west, 
and close to the coast, is a third 
series, known as the Coast 
Ranges, which in places rise 
directly out of the ocean. 

Just west of the Rocky 
Mountains is a plateau, dotted 
with numerous mountain peaks 
and small ridges. It is higher 
at the two ends than in the 
middle, and may be divided into 
three parts (Fig. 43) : (1) the 
great Columbia plateau of Idaho, 
Oregon, and Washington on the 
north ; (2) the Colorado plateau 
of Arizona and Utah on the 
Fl «. -I. south; and (3) the Great Basin 

Mt. Rainier, Washington. of Utah and Nevada between 













150 


NORTH AMERICA 


the two. The numerous short north and south mountain ranges 
in the Great Basin are called the Basin Ranges. 

Between the Sierra Nevada-Cascade system and the Coast Ranges there 
is an area of lowland (Fig. 43). In California and Oregon this forms 
fertile valleys; in Washington it is occupied by Puget Sound. 

Throughout most of this Western country evidences of volcanic action 
abound (p. 5). Some of the loftiest peaks are extinct volcanoes, as Mt. 
Rainier (Fig. J), within sight of Tacoma, Washington; Mt. Hood (Fig. 
135), not far from Portland, Oregon; and Mt. Shasta (Fig. 6), in north¬ 
ern California. 

The influence of lava on the West is marked. For hundreds of thou¬ 
sands of square miles it forms the rock of the country, and its decay has 
produced a soil which is very fertile. It covers the plateaus, especially 
in the north, and is one of the chief causes of the peculiar scenery of 
the West. 

Climate. — Unlike the East, where the climate is very uniform 
over large sections, the West is a region of contrasts, with a great 
variety of climate from place to place. The most general fact about 
the climate of this vast Western region is its aridity. Large areas 
of country are so dry that no agriculture is possible without irrigation. 
Only among the high plateaus and mountains, and in Washington, 
western Oregon, and the greater part of California, is there rainfall 
enough for forests or for farming. Thus, almost one fifth of the 
entire continent is a partial or complete desert. 

Along the northwestern coast the damp west winds bring so 
much vapor that the rainfall is heavy. Indeed, near the coast of 
Washington there is a rainfall greater than in any other part of the 
United States, the heaviest rain coming in winter. But being 
robbed of its vapor in crossing the mountains, the air descends on 
the eastern side so dry that agriculture is possible in only a few 
sections, as in the high mountain valleys and in the wheat district 
of central and eastern Washington and Oregon. 

I aits of Nevada, Utah, Arizona, and California are true deserts, 
and portions of each of the other states approach it. Near the north¬ 
ern shores of (Treat Salt Lake, for example, not a tree nor even a shrub * 
is to be seen for many miles. The entire surface is covered by a 
glistening whitish substance called alkali. In other regions dreary 
wastes extend hundreds of miles, interrupted only by cacti and other 
aiid land plants, by rocky ledges, and by occasional mountain peaks. 

The lack of water is shown on the map by the scarcity of streams 
in and near Nevada. That section is a real basin, having a rim 


THE WESTERN STATES 


151 


which prevents the water from flowing out, and is called the Great 
liasin (big. 48). Its few streams either flow into shallow salt lakes, 
" hieli are growing more and more salt as the years pass, or they dry 
up and disappear in the sand. 

1 hat much rain falls on the cool mountains and plateaus of the 
A\ est is shown by the numerous large rivers which have their sources 
there. Name and locate those flowing from the Rocky Mountains 
into the Mississippi. 1 race the Rio Grande and the rivers that 
empty into the Pacific Ocean. Although long, these rivers are not 
navigable, partly because of the steep slopes, and partly because of 
the lack of water. Indeed, during the dry summer season, many, like 
the Rio Grande, almost disappear in the middle part of their course. 


The importance of even the higher plateaus in condensing the vapor 
is well illustrated by the highlands of Central Arizona. A person travel¬ 
ing eastward from Los Angeles, on the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe 
Railway, upon reaching the Colorado River in the evening, finds himself 
in the midst of a desert about 500 feet above sea level. If it is summer, 
the thermometer may register from 110° to 120° in the shade, for this is the 



12—A (? 


















152 


NORTH AMERICA 


hottest region in the United States, hotter than many parts of the torrid 
zone. After leaving the river, the train ascends the Colorado plateau, 
7000 feet high, and the next morning the traveler is in the midst of a 
forest, while the almost unbearable heat of the previous day is replaced 
by a delightfully cool air. As if by magic the scene is changed, simply 
because, on the elevated plateau, the air is cooler and the vapor can 
therefore be condensed into rain. 


Mineral Products. — As we have already seen, mining was the 
first industry to attract large numbers of pioneers to the Far West. 
Every one of the Western States contains mineral deposits of some 



Fig. 137. 

Mine and mill, Goldfield, Nevada. 


kind, as gold, silver, copper, lead, mercury, and coal. This region is 
now the most important mining district in the world. 

Much of the land is still owned by the government, and all ore 
that is discovered upon it belongs to the finder. Any citizen of the 
L nited States may become the owner of a valuable mine, if he can 
find one on government land. Consequently, hundreds of pros¬ 
pectors are digging into the earth wherever there are indications 
of ore. In most cases they are doomed to disappointment, but 
they keep trying, moving from place to place. Sometimes, how- 

evei , va ua ile oie is found, and then the poor prospectors become 
suddenly rich. 

Much gold lias been discovered in the gravels of stream beds 
where water no longer flows. In many places these dry beds are 
near the surface, so that mining is easy; in others, they have been 














the western states 


153 


covered up with a thick blanket of hard lava, beneath which the 
miners are obliged to tunnel in order to follow them. 

Very early the miners became dissatisfied with the slow “pan- 

^ ^ ie as washing the gravel in pans was called 

([). 148). 1 hey then adopted the far more speedy plan of hydraulic 

mining (Fig. 136). 


ning 


llns method of mining within the basin of all navigable streams of 
the state is now prohibited by law because the gravel and silt were washed 
into the rivers arid made them too shallow for navigation, and during high 

water caused the rivers to leave their banks and overflow thousands of 
acres of land. 


Anothei method of mining gold, and the one by which most of 
that metal is now obtained, is to dig into the solid rock. The shafts 
and tunnels follow the veins from which the gold in the gravels 
oiiginally came. l he metal is found in rock mixed with other 
mineials which are of little or no value; but the gold sometimes 
occurs in such small grains that one may spend days in a mine with¬ 
out seeing any. 

To secure the gold, the ore is put through a stamp mill (Fig. 138). 
1 lie ore is dumped into a .rock breaker, where it is broken into bits 
about the size of liens’ eggs, dropping into bins to which are attached 


self-feeders which feed the ore to the batteries containing the 
heavy stamps. 

An abundance of water and a certain amount of quicksilver is 
put into the flatteries with the ore. The ore is ground to fine 
powder and thoroughly mixed with the water and quicksilver and 
passed through a fine screen on to amalgamated plates over which it 


passes, and finally through the concentrates to collect the fine sold. 

o 

At ceitain times the stamps are stopped and a 44 clean up” is made. 


One of the most remarkable mining districts in the world was that of 
the Comstock Lode at Virginia City, Aevada. So many people moved 
there then that Nevada territory became a state in 1864; and Virginia 
City, though in the midst of the desert, grew to be a thriving city. 

Partly because of the difficulty of mining, and partly because of the 
failure to discover new bonanzas, some of the mines were abandoned and 
people drifted away, so that the population of Nevada decreased, but with 
the discovery of new mining fields, new towns have sprung up, and Nevada 
is again the center of great activity, with a rapidly increasing popu¬ 
lation. Tonopah, Goldfield, Rawhide, and Bullfrog are important new 
mining towns. 


154 


NORTH AMERICA 


At the present time Colorado produces more gold and silver 
than any other state (Figs. 225 and 226), and much copper, lead, 
iron, and coal, besides. Among the mountains, one sees mines 
almost everywhere; one of the most noted mining districts is 
near Leadville, a city at an elevation of over 10,000 feet above 



Fig. 138. 

Forty Stamp Mill, Nevada County, California. 


sea level. Another well-known mining camp in Colorado is Crip¬ 
ple Creek. A few years ago no town existed there, and the ore, 
which has now become so valuable, was not recognized as ore by the 
prospectors. 


After the ore is taken from the mines it must be crushed, the worth- ' 
less parts must be washed out, and the remainder sent to the smelters 
where the metal is obtained by a complicated process. 


ie western half of Montana is another great mining section. 
Helena has been a noted mining center, but no portion of 
the state is now so important for mining as Butte. There the 
principal metal is copper, although some gold and silver are mixed 










the western states 


155 


with the ore. More copper is produced at Butte than in any other 
mining district in the world. The mines are very extensive, 
reaching several thousand feet into the earth and having miles 
of tunnels, through which one might wander for days without find¬ 
ing his way out. 

Much of the ore is crushed and reduced in smelters within the 
city limits. In the process, fumes of sulphur pour forth from the 
tall chimneys and settle to the ground, killing almost all vegetation, 
and causing the city and its immediate surroundings to present a 
barren, desolate appearance. 

As in Colorado and Montana, the principal industry in Arizona is min¬ 
ing) much copper, silver, lead, and gold being produced. One of the largest 
cities in the territory is Tucsox, which, together with the others, is mainly 
engaged in business connected with mining. There is also much mining, 
especially of gold, silver, and copper, in each of the other Western States, 
especially in Idaho, Utah, and New Mexico. 

Iron is found in several of the states, but it is not mined to any extent 
except west of Pueblo, in Colorado. Coal, usually of poor quality, also 
occurs in many sections; but a very good grade of coal is produced in 
Colorado, Wyoming, and in the state of Washington. 



Lumbering. — The mining industry requires vast quantities of 
lumber for timbering. The Butte mines alone consume millions 
of feet per year. In the mines heavy timbers are placed upright 
and close together on 
each side of a tunnel, 
with crosspieces over¬ 
head, to prevent the 
rock from caving in. 

Because of the great 
pressure upon them, 
timbers more than a 
foot in diameter are 
often broken. 

While a great por¬ 
tion of the country 
is arid, the mountains 
and some of the higher 
plateaus are forested. 

Thus the mines, Fio. 139 . 

which are usually Chopping down a tree In Humboldt County, California. 






156 


NORTH AMERICA 


among the high mountains, are generally supplied without difficulty, 
for the logs are easily brought to them. 

In the damp, equable climate near the northwestern coast, are 
forests of giant redwood, fir, cedar, and spruce trees which grow to 
a greater size than any other trees in the world (Fig. 140). While 



Fig. 140. 

Great logs being removed from the forest in Humboldt County, California. A donkey 

engine is used to draw the logs to the railway. 


the logs in Maine and Michigan are rarely more than two or 

three feet in diameter, many in Washington and Oregon are from 

six to ten feet through, and some in California are very much 
larger. 


A visit to a lumbering camp near Tacoma will show that, owing to 
the size of the trees, and to the climate, the work is carried on very differ- 
ently from lumbering in Maine (p. 51). The men are able to work both 
winter and summer. Some trees tower upward for two hundred feet — 
that is higher than most church steeples, — and contain as much’as 

fifteen thousand feet of lumber, or enough, when sawed into boards, to 
build a small house. , 


After the branches are removed, the tree is sawed into logs of different 
lengths, as twenty-four, thirty-two, forty-eight feet, and these are dragged 
to the foot of the mountain, several miles away. There they are oiled 
upon flat cars and taken to the mills (Fig. 143), a single section sometimes 












THE WESTERN STATES 


157 


occupying an entire car. Many go to Tacoma and Seattle, where there 
aiei enormous sawmills. Since there is so much lumber, many of the streets 

of lacoma, and other places in this region, are paved with thick planks 
instead of stone or asphalt. 

Agriculture. b arming is carried on extensively in the well- 
watered section of the Northwest (Fig. 141). This is a wheat- 
producing country like the Red River valley. Barley is another 
common giain and much hay is also raised. During harvest season 
the air is so dry that both hay and grain may be left out for weeks 
with little danger of being spoiled by rain. 

Great quantities of fruit are also raised in this region. In the 
north apples, pears, and peaches are produced; but in the south, 
throughout the whole length of the great valley of California, in 



Fio. 141. 

Harvesting wheat in the great wheat fields of California, Oregon, and Washington. By this 
machine, drawn by many mules, the wheat is cut and the seed removed at the same time. 


addition to the hardier fruits, are groves of oranges, lemons, olives, 
and figs, as well as other trees which grow only in warm climates. 
Stockton and Sacramento are the leading cities of the great valley. 

Farming is possible in some other parts of the West by means of 
irrigation. The influence of irrigation is well illustrated in the 
region near Denver, which is crossed by the South Fork of the 
Platte River, from which a ditch as large as a canal is led out 
upon the plain. 

Smaller branches are led off from the main ditch, and each of 
these is divided and subdivided to supply farms along its course. 




158 


NORTH AMERICA 




Fig. 142. 

Sweetwater Dam near San Diego, California. 

When a field needs water, the ditch is tapped and the field flooded, 
or else the water is led into little furrows a few feet apart. The 
method of irrigation depends upon the kind of crop that is under cul¬ 
tivation. As there is danger that the supply of water may not last 


Fig. 143. 

Train load of logs at Sawmill. 

















THE WESTERN STATES 


159 



through the summer, reservoirs (Fig. 142) are built to store the water 

furnished by the spring freshets; and when needed, this is allowed 
to flow into the ditch. 

Of course such an arrangement is expensive, and each farmer 
must pay for Ids water at a certain rate, as each house in a city 
pays for its water or gas. 

Irrigation has had a great influence on the settlement of the West. 

Without it Denver and 1 ueblo would not be the cities they are; 
and, because of the dif¬ 
ficulty of obtaining 
food, scores of mining 
towns would not be in 
existence. 

W r herever the 
waters of the rivers are 
led out over the fields, 
people form settle- * 
ments and often small 
cities. That is the 
case at Greeley, in 
Colorado, Ch evenne 
and Laramie, the 
principal cities in Wy¬ 
oming, and numerous 
other places. 


Fig. 114. 

Oranges and blossoms, near Los Angeles. 

build Salt Lake City, which is now one of the most beautiful cities in 
the country. They also began to raise crops by irrigation, to plant fruit 
trees, and to convert portions of the desert waste into beautiful gardens. 

There are now many “ gentiles,’’ as those among them who do not 
accept Mormonism are called; and agriculture is no longer the sole 
industry, for many rich mines, especially of gold, silver, and copper, 
have been opened. There are numerous busy towns and cities, the 
largest, aside from the capital) Salt Lake City, being Ogden, which lies 
north of the capital. 


The Mormons, a re¬ 
ligious sect, under the 
leadership of Brigham 
Young, migrated into the 
then unknown W r est and 
settled a few miles from 
Great Salt Lake. There 
they commenced to 






160 


NORTH AMERICA 


California is a third section noted for its extensive irrigation. 
The rain comes off the Pacific Ocean during the winter and upon 
the lofty mountains deep snow gathers. Water for irrigation during 
the long dry summers is supplied by reservoirs and the melting of the 
snow. Although a small part of the state is by nature a desert, the 
addition of water to the fertile soil lias changed the country so 



Fig. 145. 


Raisins diying between the row r s of grape vines in a California vineyard. 

irrigated to one of the garden spots of the world. This region pro¬ 
duces oranges, lemons, prunes, peaches, pears, grapes, figs, olives, 
walnuts, almonds, barley, wheat, beans, sugar beets, alfalfa, and many 
other kinds of fruits, vegetables, and grains. 

Among tiie fruits the most common is the orange, especially the seed- 
ess navel orange. In the valleys of southern California nearly every 
101110 ^ ias it s orange trees (Fig. 144), and in many cases is entirely sur¬ 
rounded by groves of them. The winter season is the harvest time for 
oranges, which begin to be picked from the trees about the last of November 
and continue to be gathered until March or later. They are cut from the 
trees, sorted according to size, then packed in boxes and shipped away. 

besides fruit m the fresh state, immense quantities of fruit, such as 
peaches, prunes, apricots, grapes (Fig. 145), and figs, are dried, usually by ex¬ 
posure to the sun. In the Eastern States fruit would decay if left out of doors • 
but m the sunny climate of the arid lands it dries quickly. Great quantities 
of fruit are also canned, as near Baltimore and elsewhere in the East. 









the western ST a tes 


161 

1 he beet-sugar industry is carried on extensively in California. Thou- 

sands of acres are planted annually to beets which are converted into 

sugar by the beet-sugar factories located at Spreckels (Fig. 14(1) Oxnard 

Hamilton, Chino, Alvarado, Betteravia, Los Alamitos, Watsonville, Visalia’ 
and Corcoran. ’ 


Thousands of 
to California by 
opportunity for 
valleys which are 
fruits, thousands 


persons from the Phist were originally attracted 
the mild and healthful climate; but seeing the 
fiuit raising, they started orchards. In the 
too cool for raising oranges and other sub-tropical 
of acres are devoted to prunes, apricots, grapes, 



Fig. 146. 


Spreckels beet-sugar factory. 2700 tons daily. 

\ 


pears, and apples. Land that a few years ago was almost a desert, 
and worth at best only a few dollars an acre, now supports flourish¬ 
ing groves of fruit. 


So important is irrigation that it is being introduced wherever 
possible ; and every year new irrigation systems are being built, some 
of them at great expense. One of the future problems of the West 
is how to store the water of the melting snows until needed by the 
summer crops. 

Ranching.—The manner in which a cattle ranch in Dakota is con¬ 


ducted was described on page 129, and much the same plan is followed 
for cattle and horses in the Western States. Sheep ranching is con¬ 
ducted somewhat differently, as may be seen from the ranches about 
Hillings, Montana. A good-sized ranch has from twenty-five thou¬ 
sand to forty thousand head of sheep, which, like cattle, may be fed 
partly upon the government land, or the “range,” and partly on land 


























NORTH AMERICA 


162 

fenced in and owned by the ranchman. During the coldest winter 
weather the sheep are in many cases driven into protected corrals 
and fed on alfalfa because the snow on the range sometimes becomes 
so deep that they cannot obtain food. 



Fig. 147. 

A sheep herder, and his flock of sheep. 


When the sheep are feeding on the range one man with a dog 
(Fig. 1473 ^ an herd twenty-five hundred; and, with a horse in addi¬ 
tion, he sometimes takes care of five thousand. Selecting some spot 



Fig. 148. 

U. S. Battleship Oregon. Built by the Union Iron Works. 

















THE WESTERN STATES 


103 


near water for a camp, the herder drives his sheep out each morning 
and back at night, going each day a distance of a mile or two from 
camp. When the grass is eaten in one place, the camp is moved; 
then, from another point as a center, they wander out as before. 


After the winter is over, the first returns to the ranchman come from 
the sale of the pelts of sheep which have died during the cold weather. He 
expects a loss of about live per cent a year from this cause. 

The real harvest comes from the wool. Men who make it their busi¬ 
ness to shear sheep travel in squads of about twenty-five. They erect 
sheds and pens near some sheep center, such as Billings, and shear all 
the sheep that are brought to them (Fig. lOlj. Sometimes sheep are 
sheared at the ranch; but many consider it more desirable to drive them 
near to a market, thus saving the expense of drawing the wool a long 
distance to the railway station. In this way the sheep also secure food 
on the range while on the journey to and from the market. 

In the Southwestern States sheep are often sheared twice a year; but 
farther north it is done only once, and then as near the month of .1 une as pos¬ 
sible. Can you suggest a .reason for choosing that time ? After the wool 
is cut, it is pressed into bales and shipped to various markets in the East. 
Where should you think it might be sent, and for what purpose used ? 

From July on, many sheep are sold for mutton. Those that are from 
three to five years old, and that have already borne a quantity of wool, are 
usually selected for this purpose. The hides are useful for leather, the 
bones for fertilizing the soil, and the tallow for candles. 


Territories. —Arizona and New Mexico are still territories, al¬ 
though efforts have been made to unite the two for admission as a 
single state. 



Fio. 140. 

Cliff dwellings, built beneath the overhanging cliffs. 








164 


NORTH AMERICA 


This is the region in which some of the most highly developed 
Indians were discovered by the Spaniards (p. 33). Now most of the 
country is occupied by Americans who have formed numerous towns 
and cities, such as Tucson, Prescott, and Phcenix, in Arizona, and 
Albuquerque in New Mexico. 


The Pueblo Indians still live after the manner of their ancestors. 
Their homes are built of sun-dried clay, or adobe , and in some cases are 
entered from the roof by means of a ladder (Fig. 28). Other Indian 
houses, the cliff dwellings (Fig. 149), were built on the sides of cliffs be¬ 
neath overhanging ledges; and still others, cave dwellings, were in caves. 

Among the early Spanish settlements is the quaint city of Santa Fe, 
the capital of New Mexico. There, as elsewhere in the territory, the 
houses are mostly low, one-story, adobe buildings (Fig. 150). Spanish is 
the language most commonly heard, and on all hands one sees the primi¬ 
tive customs of a century ago. For instance, wheat, instead of being 
threshed out by machines, is often spread upon the ground in an inclosure 
and trampled by goats until the grain is separated from the hull. The 
grain is then tossed into the air in order that the wind may carry away 



Fig. 150. 


the chaff. However, in 
many parts of New Mexico 
and Arizona, agriculture, 
mining, and other industries 
are well developed, and the 
leading cities and towns are 
enterprising and prosperous 
American communities. 

Scenery 

In many places among 
the mountains there are 


A view in a New Mexico town, showing the low adobe 
houses in which the Mexicans live. 


sights comparing favorably 
with those of the Alps, 
which attract so many 
Americans abroad. Fine views, strangely formed cliffs, deep canyons, 
and imposing waterfalls are present without number. But among all 
the interesting places there are three that easily surpass the others 
in magnificence and grandeur. These are the Yellowstone National 
Park, the Colorado Canyon, and the Yosemite Valley. 

The Yellowstone Park.—This region, chiefly in Wyoming, is a 
tract, of land, larger than Connecticut, which the government has 
set aside as a national park. It is often called the “Wonderland 
of America.” Among the many objects of interest are boiling 








THE WESTERN STATES 


165 


springs, boiling mud springs of different colors, deep canyons and 
waterfalls. Some of the springs are on the level of the ground, so 
that one must be on the constant outlook lest he step into one ; 
others are surrounded by a rim several feet high. 

A stage road leads from the Northern Pacific Railway to the Mammoth 
Hot Springs on the northern side of the Park. Here and there are geysers, 
Horn which hot water and steam occasionally burst forth with great vio¬ 
lence, sometimes to a height of 100 
or 200 feet. “ Old Faithful” (Fig. 

151), one of the most regular of 
these, plays at intervals of 65 min¬ 
utes to a height of 100 to 130 feet. 

Beyond the geyser basins the 
Yellowstone Lake is reached, a 
beautiful sheet of water, nestled in 
the mountains at a height of nearly 
8000 feet above the sea. Its waters 
flow northward, forming the Yellow¬ 
stone River, a tributary of the Mis¬ 
souri. To many persons, the falls 
(Fig. K) and canyon of this river 
are the greatest wonders of the 
Park. Soon after leaving the lake, 
the stream narrows and quickens, 
and the water leaps 109 feet di¬ 
rectly downward. A short distance 
farther on it tumbles 308 feet 
farther, or almost twice the height 
of Niagara. It then runs between 
banks which rise 1000 feet above it. 

The canyon is somewhat wind¬ 
ing, with numerous bold cliffs jutting 

fai out into the ab^ss; and from these, wonderful and inspiring views 
may be obtained. Far below, one sees the silvery stream, too distant to 
be heaid as it dashes along. Across the chasm, a half mile away, dark 
gieen pines fringe the cliH 5 and between the water and these woods are 
gorgeously colored rock strata, having all tints of the rainbow. 

Colorado Canyon. — One portion of the Colorado Canyon, in 
Arizona (Fig. L), may be reached 011 the Atchison, Topeka and 
Santa he Railway. The wonderful Yellowstone Canyon, just de¬ 
scribed, is a pygmy compared with this. 

As one first looks out over the canyon he sees nothing but towers, 
pinnacles, many-colored layers of rock, and apparently bottomless 
depths. When he finally takes a position from which he can see the 



Fig. 151. 

An eruption of “Old Faithful,” Yellow¬ 
stone Park. 












Fig. 152. 

Mariposa Big Trees, California. 
166 






















Fig. K. Grand Canyon and Falls of llie Yellowstone. 



13—A O 
































THE WESTERN STATES 


169 


threadlike stream far below, it seems almost impossible that so little 
water could have wrought such a mighty work. 

1 he difficult path which leads to the bottom is seven miles long, 
and the trip down and back is a full day’s journey; but without mak- 
ing it, one fails to appreciate fully the marvelous carving, sculpturing, 
and coloring. At the bottom the scene is entirely changed ; and, as 
one looks upward to see himself shut in by walls which seem to ex¬ 
tend to the very heavens, his own littleness and the immensity of 
the work of Nature are wonderfully impressed upon him. 

Yosemite Valley.—-In California, on the western slope of the 
Sierra Nevada Mountains, about 150 miles east of San Francisco, 
is the famous Yosemite Valley (Figs. A and M). This valley is 
six miles long and from one half mile to a mile in width. Its 
almost vertical granite walls rise from 3000 to 5000 feet. From 
the top of these cliffs the Merced River and its tributaries fall in 
grand cataracts from 400 to 1500 feet in height. 

Some of the most magnificent scenery in the world is found in 
this small valley. 

About thirty miles southward from the Yosemite Valley is the 
Mariposa grove of Big Trees (Fig. 152), the largest of which is 
thirty-five feet in diameter, towering three hundred feet high — 
the giant trees of the world. 

The Cities 


Cities in the Interior. — Large inland cities in the Western States 
are very few in number, the greatest being Denver, the capital of 
Colorado. This city is located on the site of a small mining camp, 
but its growth is chiefly due to two facts : (1) the numerous mining 
towns among the mountains, and (2) the near presence of water, 
which has made irrigation on a large scale possible (p. 157). The 
first fact calls for an important trade center somewhere in that region, 
and the second makes it possible to secure food. 

Denver has now become a railway and manufacturing center, 
where ore is smelted, and machinery, flour, and cloth manufactured. 
It is also of importance as a health resort, for its altitude of over 
five thousand feet, and its dry climate, render it especially adapted 
to persons suffering from lung trouble. Colorado Springs, south 
of Denver and near Bike’s Peak, is one of the leading health resorts 
in the country. 


170 


NORTH AMERICA 



Pueblo, a trade and manufacturing center, is situated where the 
Santa Fe line meets the Denver and Rio Grande Railway. In this 
city much ore is smelted, and iron goods are manufactured. It is its 
nearness to coal and iron ore which makes the latter industry possible. 

Cities on the Pacific Slope. — The largest city in all these states is 

San Francisco 
(Fig. 132), located 
on a remarkably 
fine harbor which 
was formed by 
the sinking of 
the coast, as the 
harbor of New 
York City was 
formed. As in 
that case, too, there 
are other important 
cities near at hand 
—the largest being 
Oakland. Close 
to San Francisco 
are the two most- 
important educa¬ 
tional institutions 
in the Far West, 
— one, the University of California, at Berkeley (Fig. 125 a), the 
other, Leland Stanford Junior University (Fig. 125 b), a short dis¬ 
tance south of San Francisco. Farther south is San Jose, and to 
the northeast are Sacramento, the capital, and Stockton. 

Ihe enormous crops of wheat, fruit, and wool in northern Cali¬ 
fornia suggest some of the occupations in these cities. What are 
they? Owing partly to an insufficient supply of coal, manufactur¬ 
ing was slow in developing in this region, but now this need is sup¬ 
plied by an abundance of crude petroleum found in central and 
southern California, and many important industries are springing up. 
In western Oregon and northern California wood is largely used for 
fuel. Most of the wool raised in the West is shipped to the East to 
be manufactured into clothing, blankets, etc., and some of these 
manufactured articles are sent to California to be sold. 

San Francisco has important foundries and machine shops, flour 


Fig. 153. 

The County Court House, Los Angeles, one of the most beautiful 

buildings in the country. 

















THE WESTERN STATES 


171 


and woolen mills, sugar refineries, canning factories, breweries, and 
distilleries. Hie principal products sent away from the state are 
gold and silver, wine, fruit, wool, grain, and manufactured goods, 
some going East by rail and some by water. This is the greatest 
shipping point on the Pacific coast; and as our trade with the Phil- 



Fig. 154. 


Chester Place, Los Angeles. 


ippines, Hawaiian Islands, and other Pacific countries increases, we 
may expect San Francisco to grow even more rapidly. 

The Union Iron Works of San Francisco built the U. S. Battle¬ 
ship Oregon (Fig. 148), which went around “ The Horn " and 
assisted in the destruction of the Spanish Fleet at Santiago de Cuba, 
the U. S. S. California , and in fact all war vessels built for the 
government on'the Pacific coast,, with the single exception of the 
U. S. S. Nebraska , which was built by the Moran Shipbuilding 
Company of Seattle, Washington. 

There are few good harbors on the Pacific coast of the United 
States compared with those of the Atlantic coast. 













172 


NORTH AMERICA 


San Francisco Bay has few equals as a harbor ; it could float at 
one time all the navies of the world. 

South of San Francisco are the harbors of Monterey Bay, Santa 
Barbara Channel, San Pedro, and San Diego Bay. Estimate the 
distance of these points from San Francisco (Fig. 132). 

Irom the harbor of Humboldt Bay, north of San Francisco, are 
shipped large quantities of lumber, shingles, and dairy products. 

The harbor of Portland, Oregon, is situated on a tributary of the 
Columbia River, about a hundred miles up the river at the head of 
deep-water navigation. Most of the other important towns of Oregon 
are inland, and Portland has grown to be the chief shipping point by 
water, and therefore the largest city. From this point wheat, wool, 
and lumber, the leading products of Oregon, are shipped in great 
quantities. Portland has extensive manufactories of woolen goods, 
flour, and furniture ; and Salem, the capital, also has large woolen 
and flour mills. 

Farther down the Columbia are several towns, the largest being 
Astoria, where, as elsewhere along the river, the salmon industry is 
developed. The salmon, like the shad of the East (p. 72), although 
spending its life in the ocean, passes up the rivers to spawn , or lay its eggs, 
in fiesh water. In their passage the fish are caught in great numbers 
(Figs. 155 arid 156). 


In Washington, Seattle and Tacoma (Fig. 131) are situated 
on Puget Sound; but Spokane, the third city in size, is located 



Fig. 155. 

Catching salmon in dip nets as they leap over the falls. 








THE WESTERN STATES 


173 



near Spokane 1 alls on the Spokane River in the eastern part of the state. 
Coal, lumber, grain, and hops are the principal exports. There is also 
extensive manufacture of 
flour at Spokane, and of 
lumber and furniture 
along the shores of Puget 
Sound, especially at 
Seattle and T acoma. 

These goods are shipped 
away in large amounts, 
some going to the East¬ 
ern cities, some to China, 

Japan, the Philippines, 

Alaska, and other coun¬ 
tries. 

On Figure 227 notice 
what great lines of raih 
way cross the continent 
to the Pacific coast, 
and in what cities they terminate. What about the number of rail¬ 
ways on the Pacific coast compared with those on the Atlantic? 


Fig. 156. 

A wheel, with a net on it, which revolves in the current 
and lifts the salmon from the water as they swim 
past. 


QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 

Review Questions and Tones. — (1) Tell how California became settled. 
(2) II ow did gold get into the streams? (3) IIow did the prospectors obtain it? 
(4) Describe the physiography:—the mountains and plateaus; the volcanoes; 
their effects. (.1) Tell about the climate: — the aridity; the rainy Northwest; 
the deserts; the effect of plateaus and mountains. (0) What minerals are found 
in the West? (7) Tell about the prospectors. (8) Describe hydraulic mining. 
(0) What kind of gold mining is now most common? (10) Give the history of 
the Comstock Lode. (11) What effect did it have upon Nevada? (12) What 
state now produces most gold and silver? (13) Name and locate the principal 
mining towns in Colorado. (14) What must be done with the ore? Where is it 
done? (15) Name and locate the principal mining town in Montana. (16) In 
Arizona. (17) Where is copper found in these states? (18) Where is coal chiefly 
found? (19) Where are the forests? Why? (20) Describe lumbering near 
Tacoma. (21) What are the farm products of the sections that are well supplied 
with rain? (22) State the plan for irrigating the land near Denver. (23) Tell 
how irrigation has influenced the settlement of the West. (21) N ame some cities 
that have irrigation systems. (25) Tell about the Mormons. (26) Describe the 
fruit region of southern California : — the appearance of the country; the climate; 
the products; what is done with them; the cities; the importance of water. 

(27) Why is ranching carried on in the West? What animals are raised? 

(28) Tell about sheep ranching : — number of sheep ; care given them; shearing; 









174 


NORTH AMERICA 


uses of the products. (29) Tell about the Indians of New Mexico and Arizona. 
(30) About the primitive customs of the Mexicans. (31) Describe the Yellow¬ 
stone Park: — location; size; springs and geysers; the canyon. (32) Describe 
the Colorado canyon. (33) The Yosemite Park. (34) Name the principal inland 
cities, telling for what each is important. (35) What cities are on or near San 
Francisco Bay? For what important? (36) Tell about San Francisco. (37) Name 
the harbors south of San Francisco. (38) Describe the location and industries of 
Portland. (39) What is done at Salem? (40) Tell about the salmon industry. 
(41) Name the cities of Washington. For what is each important? 

Review by States : Montana (Mont.). — (1) What industries are carried 
on in the eastern part? Why? (2) What industries in the western part? 

(3) Name the cities mentioned in Montana, and tell for what each is important. 

(4) What two large rivers drain this section? (5) Through what states do they 
flow before reaching the Gulf? (6) Draw an outline map of the state; and, as 
each of the other states is studied, do the same for that. 

Wyoming (Wy.). — (7) What industries are carried on in this state? 
(8) What cities are mentioned? In what connection? (9) Find the Yellowstone 
Park, and tell for what it is noted. (10) On the maps showing principal grain- 
producing regions (Figs. 209 and 211), Wyoming is a state where very little is 
produced. Why so little there ? 

Colorado (Col. or Colo.). — (11) Examine Figures 209 to 226 to see what is 
done in Colorado. (12) Give the reason why there is more water for irrigation 
in this state than in some of the others. (13) Trace the divide between the 
Pacific and Atlantic drainage, as it crosses Colorado. Trace it northward to 
Canada and southward to Mexico. (14) Name the cities in Colorado mentioned 
in the text, and tell for what each is important. (15) Find the population of 
Denver. (Appendix, p. v.) Compare it with the largest city in each of the other 
Western States, and also with New Orleans, Buffalo, and St. Louis. 

New Mexico (N.M.) — (U 3) What about the inhabitants? (17) What is 
said about the industries? (18) Find how large is the largest city. (Appendix, 
p. iv.) (19) Compare it with the largest city in Massachusetts. In Nevada. 

Aiizona (A nz.). (2*0 dell about the river that crosses the territory. 

(21) What city and industries are mentioned? (22) What minerals are obtained 
here? (23) How does the largest city compare in size with the largest in New 
Mexico ? In Colorado ? 

Nevada (Neo.). — ( 24) For what was Nevada famous ? (25) Find its present 
population. (Appendix, p. iii.) Why are there so few people? 

Utah. — (26) Tell why the Great Salt Lake is salt. (See First Book, p. 55.) 
(27) What are the industries of this state? (28) What cities are mentioned? 
Tell about each. (29) Examine the maps, Figures 209 to 224, to see what prod¬ 
ucts come from Utah. 

Idaho (Ida.). — (30) What metals are obtained? (See Figs. 224 and 226.) 
(31) What great river drains Idaho? (32) What mountain range forms~the 
eastern boundary ? 

Washington (Wash.).—(S3) Compare the coast line with that of Oregon- of 
Maine. (34) Tell about the rainfall of this state. Compare it with Montana 
(page 150). Why this difference? (35) What effect has the rainfall upon the 
industries? What are the principal industries? (36) What cities are mentioned 
in the text ? Tell about each. 

Oregon (Ore.). — (37) AVhat advantage do you see in the location of the larg¬ 
est city ? (38) Compare it in size with Denver, New York, Boston, and New 


It E VIE I V q l TESTIONS 


175 


Orleans. (39) Examine the maps (Figs. 209 to 221) to see what is produced in 
Oregon. (40) What industries are mentioned in the text? (41) What cities are 
mentioned and in what connection? 

California (CW.).—(42) What about the rainfall? (43) What rivers drain 
most of this state? (44) Describe the relief. (45) Name the cities mentioned; 
tor what is each important? (46) What industries in the state? (47) What 
advantage do you see in the location of San Francisco? (48) Compare its popu¬ 
lation with that of Boston, New Orleans, Denver, and Chicago. (49) What 
caused the early growth of California? What effect has that had on the other 
Western States l (50) To whom did California belong before we obtained it? 

General. — (51) Which state has the largest population? (See Appendix, 
p. m.) The smallest? (52) Compare each with Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New 
York, and South Carolina. (53) Name the ten largest cities. (Appendix, pp. iv-vi.) 
Add their populations together, and compare the result with the ten largest in 
each of the other groups. (54) Which group of states has the most large cities? 
W hich the least ? What reasons can you give ? 


Suggestions. — (1) Read about the expedition of Lewis and Clark from St. 
Louis to the Pacific coast in 1803-1806. (2) What is the origin of the expression 

“ to pan out ” I (3) Why do the heavier rains on the northern Pacific coast come 
in winter? (4) Mention several of the advantages and disadvantages of having 
no rain for several months at a time, as in southern California. (5) Make a cob 
lection of minerals for the school. (6) Hydraulic mining has been largely pro¬ 
hibited in many parts of the West. Why? (7) Should the ditch that'is to 
irrigate a certain field skirt its upper or lower edge? Why? (8) Which is the 
more easily irrigated, nearly level land, or land that is rough and hilly? Why? 
(9) Is southern California as liable to cold snaps as Florida? Why? (10) Make 
a list of articles made of wool. (11) Why have Arizona and New Mexico not be¬ 
come states? (12) Find out about the wild animals in Yellowstone National 
Park. (13) Write a story describing a visit to southern California. (14) Make a 
drawing of the Western States. 


GENERAL REVIEW QUESTIONS FOR THE UNITED STATES 

(1) Name the principal crops of the United States, and tell in which section 
each is raised. (Consult the figures, 209 to 231.) (2) Do the same for mineral prod¬ 
ucts. (3) For other raw products. (4) For manufactured articles. (5) Name 
the five largest cities in their order. (Appendix, p. iv.) For what is each im¬ 
portant? (6) State some ways in which the rainfall influences the occupations 
of the people. (7) The temperature. (8) State clearly the influence of the sink¬ 
ing of the coast. (9) Of the glacial period. (10) Of the coal period. (11) Of 
the absence of forests on the prairies. (12) Of the rich mineral deposits in the 
West. (13) In what ways have the Great Lakes been of value? (14) Name 
some of the cities that have been benefited by them. (15) In what ways have 
the Mississippi River and its two largest tributaries been of value? (16) State 
the natural advantages that have aided the growth of Boston, New York, Buf¬ 
falo, Philadelphia, Baltimore, New Orleans, Detroit, Chicago, St. Louis, and San 
Francisco. (17) Can you name some other cities that have also been influenced 
by their surroundings? (18) Which is the largest state? (Appendix, p. iii.) 
The second in size? The smallest? The next to the smallest? (19) Which 
state has the largest population? (Appendix, p. iii.) The second largest? The 


176 


NORTH AMERICA 


smallest? Next to the smallest? (20) Draw a map showing the states on the 
Atlantic coast. Also make a map of those along the Pacific coast; along the Great 
Lakes; the Mississippi River ; the Ohio; the Missouri. (21) What states border 
Mexico? Canada? 

For References, see Teacher's Book. 



Fig. N. 

North Dome, King’s River Canyon, California. 





X. TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES OF THE 

UNITED STATES 


At tlie close of the Revolutionary War the United States con¬ 
sisted of thirteen small colonies along the Atlantic coast from Maine 
to Georgia. I he United States claimed the land far into the wilder¬ 
ness, even to the distant Mississippi. Beyond this was French and 
Spanish territory, while the whole Mississippi Valley was occupied 
by Indians. By purchase and by war we have acquired all the land 
between the Atlantic and the Pacific which has been described 
m the previous pages; but our control does not end with the 
boundaries of the United States proper. In 1867 we acquired 
Alaska, and in 1898 we came into possession of a number of islands, 


some of them on the other side of the globe. Since these lands 
form a part of the territory controlled by our government, a study 
of them properly comes at this point. 


Alaska 


Climate and Physiography. — For a long time Alaska, which is 
more than twice as large as Texas, belonged to Russia. That nation 
sold the territory to us for 17,200,000; but at the time many people 
considered it very unwise to pay so large a sum for so distant and 
desolate a land. However, it lias already proved of great value, and 
has paid for itself many times over. 

Since the Arctic Circle extends across the northern part of 
Alaska, it will be seen that the climate must be very uninviting. 


The winters are long and cold, and the summers short and cool. A 
strip of coast land extends southward from the main peninsula of 
Alaska, and to this the prevailing westerly winds bring an abun¬ 
dance of rain and snow. Since these winds come from the ocean they 
also render the winter climate much less cold than in the northern 
part of the territory. In this portion is situated Sitka, the capital, 
where the governor of the territory lives. 

A large part of Alaska is mountainous, for the mountains of the 
United States and western Canada extend northward into this terri- 


177 


178 


NORTH AMERICA 


tory. Among these mountains are the loftiest peaks of the continent, 
the highest yet discovered being Mt. McKinley, which is 20,464 feet 
high. Owing to the latitude, most of the mountains are snow- 
covered throughout the year (Fig. 158), and among them are innu¬ 
merable glaciers, many of which reach down to the sea. 

One of the largest glaciers now on the continent, known as the Muir 
Glacier , is located in Alaska, not far north of Sitka. It is so wonderful 
and beautiful that many tourists visit it every year. The long peninsula 
and the chain of Aleutian Islands which form the southern boundary 
of Bering Sea are really a growing mountain chain 1600 miles in length. 
All together there are 57 volcanoes in this chain, and it was here, in 1795, 
that a new volcano suddenly broke forth, building a lofty cone where 
previously ships were able to sail. 

Fishing. — Among the resources of Alaska, as in the case of 
other far northern lands, those of the sea are especially important 
(p. 21). In the shallow waters near the coast both cod and halibut 
abound, while immense numbers of salmon run up the rivers every 
summer, as they do in northern United States and Canada (pp. 172 
and 195). Ihe fishing industry is only partly developed, chiefly 
because of the great distance from a profitable market; but the 
waters of the Alaskan coast form an important fishing reserve for 
the future. 

Whaling. Every year steamers, especially built for the purpose, ven¬ 
ture through Bering Strait into the Arctic Ocean in search of the whale. 
It is a hazaidous occupation, and but few ships are now engaged in it. 
They are obliged to push their way into the floe ice (Fig. 265), in which 

they aie in danger of being imprisoned and held firmly through the 
winter. 

A whale (Big. 159), which is sometimes over a hundred feet long, is 
leally a land animal which has taken up life in the sea, as seals and wal¬ 
ruses have. Therefore, unlike the true fishes, which secure air from the 
water by means of gills, the whale must now and then rise to the surface 

for air. It is when rising to breathe, or "blow,” that the huge creatures 
are harpooned. 

Sealing. In the Arctic are found many different kinds of seal. 
One of these, the fur seal, which lives in Bering Sea, is of great 
value because of its soft fur, which is much used for winter cloaks. 
During the greater part of the year the fur seals swim in the 
sea in search of food; but in the spring, during the breeding 
season, they resort to the Pribilof Islands. The United States 
government prohibits all persons from killing them except one 





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Alaska. 



Fig. 158. 

S. S. Spokane at Muir Glacier, Alaska. 



Fig. 159. 

A whale ashore, and a whaling steamer lying off in deep water. 



Fig. 160. 


Floating iceberg in Glacier Bay, Alaska. 













TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES 


179 




Fig. 161. 

Far seals among the rocks near the coast of one of the 

Pribilof Islands. 


company, which pays a special tax for the privilege of securing a 
ceitain number each year. At the proper season the men select a 

number of males, — for a law forbids the taking of the females,_ 

and drive them off 
for slaughter, much as 
sheep would be driven. 

M i n i ng. — While 
there is some oppor¬ 
tunity for farming in 
southern Alaska, and 
the great tracts of forest 
land may be the seat of 
an important lumber¬ 
ing industry in the 
future, at present the 
most noted industry of 
Alaska is gold mining. 

1 here are extensive deposits of gold, copper, coal, and other min¬ 
erals; but they are so difficult to reach that there has been little 
development of any ol these except the first. A sliprt distance 
north ot Sitka, at Juneau, there are some very profitable gold 

mines; and else¬ 
where in the terri¬ 
tory gold mining is 
also carried on. 

Recently, Alaska 
and the neighboring 
Klondike region, 
just across the line 
in Canada, have 
attracted atten¬ 
tion because of the 
discovery of rich de¬ 
posits of gold-bear¬ 
ing gravels, some¬ 
what like those 
found in California 
in 1848. Although 
a bleak, desolate region, far in the interior and difficult of access, 
men have rushed to it, as years ago they hurried to California. Some 


Fig. 162. 

Miners fording the icy water of an Alaskan river, on the 
way to the Klondike. Two of them are harnessed in a 
wagon containing their supplies. 















180 


NORTH AMERICA 


have gone overland across the mountain passes (Fig. 162); others 
have traveled an easier route by water, taking a steamer to the 
mouth of the Yukon River, one of the longest rivers on the conti¬ 
nent. There they transferred to river boats; but since the Yukon 
is frozen over during most of the year, this journey can be made 
only in summer. 

In the scramble for gold many persons have endured terrible hardships. 
Most of them have returned with little of the precious metal, but some 
have brought back fortunes. Good-sized towns have grown up as a result 
of the inrush of people, the largest being Dawson City, Canada, and 
Circle City in Alaska, just south of the Arctic Circle. Another city that 
grew in a single season is Nome City. 

Cuba and Porto Rico 

While the United States has within recent years secured posses¬ 
sion of bleak northern lands, it has still more recently come into 
control of some warm tropical islands. As a result of the war of 
1898, Porto Rico was ceded to the United States, and Cuba was given 
its independence under the general guidance of the United States. 

Physiography and Climate.— Among the West Indies (p. 214) 
the largest island is Cuba, which is nearly as large as Pennsylvania, 
although much longer and narrower. The next in size is Haiti, and 
of the others the only two of much importance are Jamaica and Porto 
Rico, the latter being three-fourths the area of Connecticut. Cuba, 
Haiti, and Porto Rico form a portion of a single mountain chain, 
highest in Haiti, though reaching an elevation of 8600 feet in Cuba. 

While there are tree-covered mountain ranges in each of the 
islands, a large portion of Cuba and Porto Rico has been cleared 
and cultivated. This is especially true of Porto Rico, which is really 
an island of farms. Crops grow luxuriantly, partly because of the 
excellent soil, formed by the decay of the rocks, and partly because 
of the favorable climate. 

The islands are entirely within the tropical zone, so that their 
temperature throughout the year is high ; and on the lowlands neither 
snow nor frost is known. They receive an abundance of rain, es¬ 
pecially upon the northeastern or windward slopes, where the damp 
winds which blow from the northeast first reach the land. The sum¬ 
mer is the rainiest season, for then these winds blow with greater 
strength and steadiness. 


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Fig. 164 (upper). 

Morro Castle, at the entrance to Havana harbor. 

Fig. 165 (lower). 

A home in Cuba. 















TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES 


181 


Forests and Minerals. \\ hen first settled, the West Indies were cov- 
eied b) a dense tropical forest. Much, of this has been cleared away for 
purposes of farming ; but some of the woods still remain, especially among 
the higher mountains. In Cuba, for instance, there is still much valuable 

timber, such as mahogany, ebony, and fustic, which produces a valuable 
yellow dye. 

Besides these raw products of the soil, there is much mineral wealth 
in Cuba. Copper is found there, and also iron, the latter having been 
mined for a long time in the neighborhood of Santiago. 


Agriculture. — However, it is agriculture that forms the chief 
industry of the Cubans and Porto Ricans. As in all the West In¬ 
dies, the principal crop is sugar cane (Fig. 204), which grows well 
in the rich soil and the warm, rainy climate. Although much sugar 
is raised, the industry has not proved very profitable because of the 
primitive methods employed and the absence of a good market. Now 
that the l nited States has come into closer relation with these islands 
great improvement should take place. 

Sugar production is carried on in Cuba much as it is in Louisiana 
(p. 104). After the cane is cut, the sap is extracted and reduced to 
brown sugar in sugar 
houses, and then sent 
away to be manu¬ 
factured into white 
sugar. Two of the 
products of the sugar 
plantations are molas¬ 
ses, and rum, which 
is made of molasses. 

A second impor¬ 
tant crop is tobacco, 
for which Cuba is es¬ 
pecially noted. There 
is one district, on 
the western end of the island, where the rich, limy soil and the climate 
are peculiarly suited to the growth of the best quality of tobacco. 
At Havana and other places it is manufactured into cigars, which 
bring high prices—the Havana cigar being considered the best that 
is made. What lias been said about Key West in Florida? 



Fig. 1(H). 

A Cuban ox team. 


Upon the hill slopes much coffee is produced, and some tea and cocoa. 
The coffee plant not only requires a good soil, but must be grown in the 




182 


NORTH AMERICA 


shade of trees. Spices, including nutmeg, cinnamon, and ginger, are 
products of the West Indies, also pepper, cardamom, vanilla, and pimento 
or allspice. Such fruits as bananas, oranges, limes, pineapples, and cocoa- 
nuts are also produced; but, because of the poor market, in small quantities. 

In the future much more attention will 
doubtless be paid to fruit raising. In¬ 
deed, both Cuba and Porto Rico will 
probably now become not only winter 
gardens, supplying fruit and vegetables 
to the United States, but also important 
winter resorts. 

The United States has been able 
to raise almost all products of the 
soil that we have required, with the 
exception of the tropical and semi- 
tropical crops, such as tea, rice, cof¬ 
fee, sugar, spices, and tropical fruits ; 
and our newly acquired islands are 
capable of supplying even these. 

The Inhabitants. — Portions of 
Cuba and Porto Rico are densely 
populated, although in Cuba’s war 
with Spain thousands upon thousands of the inhabitants were killed 
in battle or starved to death. Property has been destroyed, and 
the island devastated to such an extent that it will be many years 
before a full tide of prosperity returns. 

Many of the natives are of mixed blood. The aborigines did not 
prove good slaves to their Spanish conquerors, and negro slaves 
were brought from Africa. Therefore, while pure-blooded Span¬ 
iards are numerous, many of the inhabitants of Cuba and Porto 
Rico are negroes, either full blooded or half-breeds. The Spanish 
have kept these natives very poor and densely ignorant; but they 
are capable of advancement under proper guidance, and this, it is 
hoped, they will receive from the United States. 

Cities.—Owing largely to an entire lack of coal and to the 
policy of the Spaniards, there has been very little manufacturing; 
but nevertheless there are several important cities, principally along 
the coast, at points where there are remarkably fine harbors. The 
largest of these is Havana in Cuba, a city of 235,000 inhabitants, 
and for a long time the center of the Spanish dominion in America. 
Another large city in Cuba is Santiago de Cuba, where the Span- 



Fig. 167. 

A Cuban boat. 







TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES 


183 


ish ships were sunk in 1898 (see map, Fig. 163). A third important 
city, with an excellent harbor, is Matanzas. 

Railway lines connect some of these cities and also reach out into 
the agricultural districts, thus serving to bring the crops to these 
ports for shipment. 

However, many of 
the towns are not 
connected by rail; 
and since there are 
few good wagon 
roads, they have al¬ 
most no communica¬ 
tion with the out¬ 
side world, except by 
boat. 

The conditions 
in Porto Rico are 
nearly the same as in Cuba, though it is less wooded than Cuba 
and more completely cultivated. Along the lower sections, near 
the coast, sugar and tobacco are raised; the low mountains pro- 




Fig. 168. 

The harbor of Havana. 


14—A O 


Fig. 160. 

Flowing lava in Hawaii, 1881. 











184 


N OUT II AMEBIC A 


duce excellent coffee, one of the most important products of the 
island; and the slopes between these two sections are largely 
occupied by herds of cattle. As in Cuba, there are a number of 
coastal cities, the largest being Ponce and San Juan, the capital. 


The Hawaiian Islands (Fig. 1T2) 



The Volcanoes. — Far out in the mid-Pacific, not quite a third 
of the distance from the Pacific coast to the Philippine Islands, is 
a mountain chain fifteen hundred miles long, most of which lies 
beneath the ocean. Frorn this long, submarine ridge there rise sev¬ 
eral volcanic peaks, forming a chain of islands, known as the Sand¬ 
wich or Hawaiian Islands. The largest is Hawaii, which is nearly 
as large as Connecticut. 

Each of the islands is composed chiefly of lava which has been 
erupted from within the earth. Two of the large Hawaiian volca¬ 
noes are still active, the largest, Mauna Loa, extending nearly four¬ 
teen thousand feet above the sea. From the coast the sea bottom 
descends so rapidly that, within a few miles of the shore, a depth of 
eighteen thousand feet is found. Therefore, if the water should be 

removed, a moun¬ 
tain peak would 
be revealed rising 
nearly thirty-two 
thousand feet 
above its base — 
a loftier moun¬ 
tain than any 
known on the 
land. 

Climate. — 

The latitude of 
the Hawaiian Is¬ 
lands (Fig. 511) 
is about the same 

Executive Building, Honolulu. that of Cuba 

and Porto Rico. 


Ileing in the midst of the broad Pacific, and therefore surrounded 


by warm ocean water, the climate near sea level is warm and won- 
deifully equable. From day to night, and even from summer to 









TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES 


185 


winter, the thermometer varies only a few degrees. As in the 
West Indies, the northeast winds blow steadily and bring an abun¬ 
dance of rain to the windward northeastern slopes. The opposite 
or leeward slopes are very much drier, and in places even arid. 


Industries. — The Hawaiian Islanders are an intelligent race, 
resembling the natives of other Pacific islands. Since white men 
brought in new methods of agriculture, the larger islands have 
become fairly productive, the principal crop being sugar. Coffee, 
tropical fruits, and rice (Fig. 171) are other products, the last 
being cultivated by the Chinese, who make up a large part of the 
foreign population. I here are also many Japanese, Portuguese, 
and Americans. The chief market has been the United States, 
especially San Francisco. In fact, these islands formed one of the 
principal sources of food supply for the early California mines. 

The white men's interests in the Hawaiian Islands led to a revolu¬ 
tion some years ago, by which these men took control of affairs from 
the native queen, set up an independent government, and offered 
themselves to the l nited States as a territory. After some delay 
this offer was accepted. 

While some of the inhabitants are engaged in agriculture, large 
numbers are gathered in small villages along the seacoast. There 
are only two cities, Hono¬ 
lulu on the island of Oahu, 
and Hilo on Hawaii. 

The Hawaiian Islands as 
a Coaling Station. — During the 
war with Spain the Hawaiian 
Islands were of importance to 
the United States as a coaling 
station for ships bound to the 
Philippine Islands. The dis¬ 
tance from San Francisco to the 
Philippines is somewhat more 
than seven thousand miles. If we wish to send a warship there from the 
Pacific coast, it is quite necessary that it should find a place on the way at 
which it could obtain coal. Such a ship might carry perhaps eight hun¬ 
dred tons of coal; but as it may burn from sixty to seventy tons a day, 
this would last less than two weeks, while the journey across would require 
more than three weeks. Therefore the government needs a place where it 
can store large quantities of coal, perhaps as much as ten or twenty- 
five thousand tons, to be used in case of need. All large naval powers 



Fig. 171. 

Planting rice in the Hawaiian Islands. 
















186 


NOUTII AMERICA 


need coaling stations in various parts of the ocean. Great Britain, the 
greatest power upon the sea, has them scattered all over the world. 


Guam and Samoa 

For a number of years the United States, Germany, and England had 
control over the Samoan Islands (Fig. 172) ; but this arrangement did not 
prove satisfactory, and now Tutuila, one of the islands, is owned by the 
United States. This tiny island is of little value to us except for the 
coaling station at the harbor of Pago Pago (Fig. 172). The natives are of 
the same race as those of the other islands of the open Pacific. They are 
splendidly developed physically, and manage a boat and swim so well that 
they are almost as much at home in the water as on land. The principal 
products are cocoanuts and cotton, and the chief city is Apia, on Upolu, 
which belongs to Germany. 

In consequence of the war with Spain, we obtained the island of Guam 
(Figs. 172 and 511), one of the Ladrones or Robbers’ Islands, some distance 
east of the Philippines. These islands, the loftiest peaks of a submarine 
mountain chain, were first seen by Magellan, who was later killed by the 
natives of the Philippines. Guam, the largest of the Ladrones, reaches 
an elevation of fifteen to eighteen hundred feet above the sea; but it is 
so small, and so far away, that it also is of little service to us except as a 
coaling station for vessels. 


The Philippine Islands 
PURCHASED FROM SPAIN IN 1898 FOR 120,000,000 

Physiography. — This group of islands, or archipelago , consists 
of several thousand separate islands, many of which are very small. 
The largest, Luzon, is about the size of Kentucky, and the second, 
Mindanao, is almost as large. Like the West Indies and the Ha¬ 
waiian Islands, the Philippines are portions of mountain chains in 
the sea. They form part of a still greater chain,, reaching north¬ 
ward to the Japanese Islands and beyond. 

Throughout the archipelago earthquakes are common and sometimes 
very destructive to property and to life ; for instance, the earthquake of 
1863 destroyed a large part of Manila. The earth is in an almost constant 
state of tremor, though most of the shocks are so slight that they are 
detected only by the aid of delicate instruments. In addition to earth¬ 
quakes there have at times been destructive volcanic eruptions. Some of 
the volcano cones of the Philippines attain a height of 8000 to 10,000 feet. 

\\ hile parts of the islands are mountainous and still covered by for- 




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UNITED STATES’ DEPENDENCIES IN THE PACIFIC 


















































































mm 

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A Philippine house. 


Fig. 173 (upper). 

Notice that it is built so as to raise it above the damp ground. 


Fig. 174 (lower). 

Natives and a water buffalo working in a sugar-cane field 


















TEli 11ITOHIES A ND DEPENDENCIES 


187 


ests, there are many valleys that have been cleared for farming. In these 
the soil is usually deep and fertile, being formed by the decay of lavas 
limestones, and other rocks rich in plant food. 

Ihe Pacific cable, connecting the Philippine Islands with the United 
States, was completed July 4, 1903; the final section of the cable from 
Manila to Shanghai was finished April 11, 1906. The cable, which varies 
in size from one inch in diameter in deep water to two inches at the shore 
ends, is 9111 miles long, is laid at an average depth of over 3} r miles, and 
extends from San Francisco to Shanghai, China, by way of Honolulu, 
Midway Islands, Guam, and Manila, affording rapid communication 
>etween the l nited States and the Pacific possessions, and being of 
the greatest commercial value. 


Climate. Besides earthquakes and volcanoes, the Philippines 
are visited by terrific tropical storms or hurricanes which are called 
typhoons . Commencing in the heated belt near the equator, they 
develop intense energy, and move slowly off into the temperate 
latitudes. I lie}' are accompanied by a terrific downpour of rain and 
by winds so violent 
that houses are torn 
to pieces and trees 
dragged out by their 
roots. During these 
storms much prop¬ 
erty is destroyed, and 
many lives are often 
lost. 

As in the West 
Indies, the climate of 
the Philippines is 
that of the tropics — 

, , Philippine natives and the domesticated buffalo, 

always warm, and 



sometimes very hot, especially at a distance from the sea. They 
have a heavy rainfall, the year being divided into the dry and rainy * 
seasons. The former comes during the winter months, the latter 
in the summer. The dry period lasts while the winds blow from 
the northeast, and then the fields often become parched and cracked, 
and the roads very dusty. In the summer, however, the winds 
change to the southeast, and as they blow from the warm, humid 
equatorial belt, they deluge the islands with rain to such an extent 
that much of the country becomes a swamp, and travel is almost 
impossible. 1 he showers are local; and while a heavy downpour 










188 


NORTH AMERICA 


occurs in one place, a short distance away on tlie leeward slopes 
there may be no rain. 

The natives have domesticated a native wild animal, the water buffalo 
(Fig. 175), which is so accustomed to the mud that it may be driven 
about during the wet season. This draft animal is of great use, especially 
in the rice fields, which are kept wet during the growing season. The 
buffalo prefers wet walking to dry, and, in fact, must have a daily plunge 
in the mud and water. 

Because of this damp climate, the Philippine houses are so built 
that the lower story is used for storage, as a cellar is in our coun¬ 
try. This raises the inhabited part of the house above the damp 
ground (Fig. 173). 

Resources and Industries. — Owing to the tropical warmth and 
dampness and to the excellent soil, the uncultivated parts of the 
islands are covered with a dense tropical forest, containing many 
valuable woods. As in other tropical forests, there are immense 
numbers of animals, especially insects, serpents, and beautiful birds. 
Among the serpents are the huge python and the deadly cobra de 
capello. There are also deer, apes, wild hogs, wild buffalo, huge bats, 
and man-eating crocodiles. 

The inhabitants of the Philippines number from eight to ten 
millions, about one half of whom are civilized; but there are still 
many savages on some of the islands, especially in the dense forests. 
Two very different races occupy the islands, — the aborigines and 
the Malays. The former, a race of small, dark-skinned savages, are 
called Negritos, a Spanish word meaning little negroes. They have 
been gradually forced to retreat to the forests by the more powerful 
and intelligent Malays. Besides the Negritos, the various tribes of 
Malays, and the half-breeds, many Chinese traders and Spaniards 
live on the islands. 

Under the influence of the Spaniards, the more civilized tribes, whom 
Magellan found in a savage state, have cleared the land and have reached 
a fairly high grade of civilization. Their wants are few, and very little 
work suffices to keep them supplied with what they need. Cocoanuts 
and bananas are easily obtained, and rice, yams, and other plant foods 
may be raised with very little effort. There is, therefore, no special reason 
for working hard; and, in fact, in that climate hard work is almost im¬ 
possible. 

The riches of the forest are scarcely utilized at all. Among the valu- 


territories and dependencies 189 

e H°“ y ’ th V' U , bbe , r tree from which percha is obtained, 

a palm fr ° m the sa P of wh,ch alcohol may be made. Cinnamon cloves 
and pepper also grow there. ’ cl0 ' es > 

The mineral resources appear to be extensive, although almost entirely 
undeveloped, since the Spaniards never encouraged mining there Gold 

Aside f rom plant products consumed at home, some cocoa, coffee, 

sugar (big. 174), and tobacco are raised for export, the latter being 

manufactured into cigars at Manila. This is almost the sole manu- 

ac ruing o importance, and the inhabitants depend upon Europe 

an America for all but the very simplest materials, which they 
themselves produce. J 

Hemp is the best-known export of these islands, which supply 
ie world with the liber used in making the better grades of Manila 
rope. Hemp is made from the fiber of a wild plantain, which so 
c ose y resembles the banana that ail inexperienced person cannot 
easily tell the two apart. In order to obtain the fiber, the plant is 

cut and allowed to wilt for a short time, then drawn between a block 
of wood and a knife, in 

order to scrape the pulp 
away. I he fiber is spread 
for several hours in the 
sun to dry, and then 
pressed into bales for ship¬ 
ping. Since the work is 
crudely done by natives, 
without the aid of machin¬ 
ery, about 40 per cent of 
the fiber is wasted. 

Fig. 170 

The castor bean grows 
wild on many of the islands, 
and its oil is extracted for 

many local purposes. Cocoanut palms also flourish, and great rafts of 
cocoanuts are shipped down the rivers to the sea. From this nut an 
oil is made that is used in lamps and sometimes in the manufacture of a 
substitute for lard. Much of the dried meat of the nut, called copra is 
shipped to Europe and the United States to be used in soap making. 

One of the most remarkable plants of the island is the rattan, which 
is put by the natives to a thousand uses, such as making ropes, houses, 
canoes, frames, carts, beds, and chairs. Many of the natives make a liv- 



A Philippine lumber yard, where bamboo is the lumber. 
Compare this with Figures 40 and 140. 










190 


NORTH AMERICA 


ing by splitting and marketing the cane. The bamboo is also of great 
value, being considered indispensable by the natives (Fig. 176). This 
plant grows from one inch to eighteen inches in diameter, and from five 
to seventy feet in height. It is used in making the frames, sides, and 
even the roofs of houses, and also rafts, boats, agricultural implements, 
bows, bowstrings, arrows, spoons, forks, and many other articles. 

Under Spanish rule the people of the Philippines were greatly 
oppressed, and the industries were only partly developed. Large 
portions of the islands were left in a wild state; and even in the 
best-settled regions little attempt was made to develop the resources. 
The islands are able to produce not only quantities of sugar, rice, 
tobacco, coffee, and cocoa, but also much more hemp than at present. 
What has been said about the valuable forest and mineral products? 

There is a promising future in the proper development of all the 
resources of these islands, and the civilized natives are able to help 
in the work. Many of them are educated and cultivated, living in 
excellent homes and surrounded by luxuries. In religion, most of 
the inhabitants belong to the Roman Catholic faith, which was early 
introduced by the Spaniards. However, the natives of the Sulu 
Islands, called Moros , are Mohammedans. These Moros are ruled 
by a Sultan under the general guidance of the United States. 

Cities. —In the Philippine group there are many cities having a 
population of more than ten thousand. However, there is at present 
only one city of great importance in the archipelago, namely, Ma¬ 
nila, on the island of Luzon. It is situated upon an excellent har¬ 
bor, and was for a long time the center of the Spanish government 
in the Philippines. 

;*■{**> 

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 

Alaska: Questions. — (1) From whom was Alaska obtained? How? 
(2) Describe the climate. (3) Name and locate the capital. (I) What are the 
surface features? (5) Locate the Muir Glacier. (6) Tell about the volcanoes. 

(7) What kinds of fish are found? (8) Describe whaling. (9) Tell about the 
seals: — where found; habits; efforts to protect them; their value. (10) Describe 
mining in Alaska : — minerals found; location of the gold mines. 

Suggestions. — (11) Collect some whalebone. (12) Collect pictures of 
Alaska. (13) Find out what people thought when the purchase of Alaska was 
being considered. (14) Try to find some one who has been in Alaska, and have 
him tell you about the country. (15) How does the area of Alaska compare with 
that of the United States proper? (16) Measure the length of the Yukon, and 
compare it with the Mackenzie. (17) Draw an outline map of Alaska. 


TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES 


191 


Cuba and Porto Rico : Questions. — (18) Name the principal islands of the 
West Indies. (19) Tell about their relief; their climate. (20) What is the reason 
for the heavy rains of summer? (21) What about the forests and their pecul¬ 
iar products i (22) 1 he minerals? (23) Name the principal farm products. 
(21) 1 ell about the inhabitants. (25) Why so little manufacturing? 

^ Suggestions. — (20) Estimate the length and the average breadth of Cuba. 
(27) How do its two leading cities compare in size with the two largest in Penn¬ 
sylvania • (~b) \\ hat pioducts of Cuba and Porto Rico are also raised in the 

United States. AVheie? (29) State some advantage that Cuba enjoys over 
Louisiana in the production of sugar. (30) In what respects are the inhabitants 
similar to those of Mexico? (31) IIow is our control of these islands liable to 
prove of benefit to us? (32) Make a sketch map of Cuba and Porto Rico. 

The Hawaiian Islands : Questions. — (33) Where are the islands ? (34) How 
have they been formed ? (35) Pell about the volcanoes. (36) About the climate. 

(37) Name the leading products. (38) The principal cities. (39) How did the 

islands come into our possession? (40) Of what use are they to us? 

Suggestions. — (41) Why should you expect much the same products in the 
Hawaiian Islands as in Cuba? (42) Why is not the summer very hot in this 
tropical region ? (43) 1\ hat city on the eastern coast should be associated with 

San I raucisco as important for refining sugar? (44) Explain the presence of 
many Chinese and Japanese in these islands. 

The Philippine Islands : Questions. — (45) Name the two largest islands. 
(46) How have the islands been formed? (17) Tell about the earthquakes. 

(48) I he soil. (49) I he rivers. (50) About the typhoons, and the dry and 

rainy seasons. (51) What about Philippine houses? Draft animals? (52) Tell 
about the forests and wild animals. (53) About the native inhabitants. 
(54) About the farm products. (55) About the Pacific Cable. 

Suggestions. — (56) Compare the latitude of the Philippine islands with 
that of the M est Indies and of the Hawaiian Islands. (57) Tell about Dewey’s 
capture of Manila. (58) Name the dependencies of the United States. (59) 
How did we obtain each? 

For References, see Teacher's Rook. 



Fig. 177. 

Sitka Harbor and Mt. Edgecomb, Alaska. 











XI. COUNTRIES NORTH OF THE UNITED STATES 


Canada and Newfoundland 


As we have learned, the northwestern extremity of North Amer¬ 
ica is in possession of the United States; but almost all of the re¬ 
maining land north of our country belongs to Canada. 

History. — While the British were founding the thirteen colonies, 
the French occupied the coast of eastern Canada and made settle¬ 
ments along the St. Lawrence valley, as at Quebec and Montreal. 
Even now four out of every five persons in the Province of Quebec 
speak French as their mother tongue. I he French and English were 
often at war; but finally England, aided by her colonies, acquired 
control of all the French possessions north of the United States, 
except the small islands of Miquelon and St. Pierre , which are still 
retained by the French as fishing stations. 

After the Revolutionary War, Canada still remained in the pos¬ 
session of Great Britain. There were at first several colonies, or 
jprovince *, with separate governments, though all were under the 
control of Great Britain; but in 1867 a union was formed called the 
Dominion of Canada. Each of the nine provinces — Nova Scotia, 
Prince Edward Island, New Brunswick, Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba, 
Alberta, Saskatchewan, and British Columbia — now has a govern¬ 
ment of its own, as our states have; but by their union they also 
have a central government with the capital at Ottawa, which corre¬ 
sponds to our capital at Washington. 


Besides these provinces, there are the Yukon Territory, the district 
o veewatm, and also a number of unorganized territories, or territories 
without a regularly organized government. Most of the latter are practi¬ 
cally a wilderness and of little importance at present. Their names will 
be tound on the map (Fig. 178). 

N^foundkncl has refused to join this federation, so that, while 
a piovmce of Great Britain, it has no connection with Canada. 
Under the government of Newfoundland is included not only the island, 
but also the east coast of Labrador. J 7 


192 






























•; i} 



8L H*»r] 


roe Rlrer 


! Laic 
‘■St. Loui 


tjt HQ TO pot mew 


St. Jerome 


L. HTRcuathe 


tuns 


Sb4rbr<x>5ce 


jOJN/T a;R 10 


St.Johii$ 


40 TO O*£ me*. 


mm 


Fig. 179. 


Map showing the location of Montreal aud Quebec. 


Fig. 180. 


A view of Montreal from the mountain back of city —the St. Lawrence in the distance. 















































COUNTRIES NORTH OF THE UNITED STATES 


193 


As in the case of the L nited States, the early settlements in Canada 
were made in the east, though westward migration has now opened up 
not merely the interior, but even the mountainous western part. At 
present, the population is over five millions, mofe than one fourth of whom 
are French. 

Physiography and Climate. — The climate of southern Canada is 
similar to that of northern United States, though of course slightly 
cooler. Its physiography is nearly the same also; and since the 
glacier, which spread over northeastern United States, had its origin 
in Canada, the effects are found there, as here. Lakes, falls, and 
rapids abound, and the soil is made of glacial drift. 

The surface of eastern Canada is much like the surface of New 
England; and, as in New England, there is much beautiful scenery. 
That section of Canada 
which lies north of Ohio 
and New York is more 
level, like those states. 

It is one of the most im¬ 
portant farming regions 
in the Dominion. Far¬ 
ther west, north of 
Dakota and Montana, 
are broad plains (Fig. 

185), arid in the western 
part, and increasing in 
elevation to the very base 
of the Rocky Mountains. 

After crossing these 
plains, the Canadian 
Pacific Railway, which extends from the Atlantic to the Pacific 
coast, follows the valleys among the mountains, and climbs to the 
passes amidst canyons, glaciers, and snow-capped peaks (Fig. 181). 
Name the mountains (Fig. 178). The scenery of ’this region is 
wonderfully grand and picturesque, and the railway passes through 
the midst of it. A portion of this wonderland has been set aside as a 
national park by the Canadian government. 

The headwaters of the Yukon River, mentioned under Alaska (p. 180), 
are in Canada; and farther east than this is the Mackenzie River, one of 
the largest on the continent. It is 2000 miles long. What three large 
lakes drain into the Mackenzie? Why is that river of little use for navi- 



Fio. 181. 

A view among the mountains of British Columbia, 
through which the Canadian Pacific passes. 







194 


NORTH AMERICA 


gation ? Wliat other large Canadian rivers drain into northern waters ? 

How would they be more useful if they drained southward, as the Missis¬ 
sippi does ? 

Canada shares with the United States the privileges of navigation 
on all the Great Lakes, with one exception. Which is it? In addi¬ 
tion to these great waterways, the lower St. Lawrence is entirely in 
Canada; but on account of the severe winters this is not so great an 
advantage as might at first appear. Why? 

There are numerous rapids in the St. Lawrence, over which vessels 
cannot pass; but large ship canals have been built around these. 
Now, therefore, all but the large ocean steamers are able to go from 
the open ocean to the western part of Lake Superior, a distance of 
twenty-four hundred miles. In this respect the Canadian route has 
a gieat advantage over the Erie Canal route, upon which only small 
canal boats can go. However, there is work in progress to deepen 
the Erie Canal so that vessels of 1000 tons can pass through it. 



Although southern Canada closely resembles the United States in 
climate and physiography, toward the north the country rapidly grows 
colder, until, in the extreme northern portion, the climate is frigid. 

There the sea is frozen over in winter, 
and in summer it is covered with 
floating ice (Figs. 265 and 266). Even 
in midsummer large patches of snow 
are seen upon the land. 

Lumbering.—The forests which 
cover northern Maine, New Hamp¬ 
shire, and Vermont extend into 
the hilly and mountainous section 
of New Brunswick and southern 
Quebec. In fact, from there west¬ 
ward to the Pacific, sweeping north - 
ward around the vast plains of 
Manitoba, this forest tract is from 
. . , . two to three hundred miles whip 

Brunswick. and is estimated to include fully a 

_ million square miles. In the east 

the principal trees are spruce, balsam fir, pines, and maples, while in 
the west are spruces, mammoth cedars, sometimes sixty feet in cir¬ 
cumference, and the Douglas fir, which in some instances attains a 



COUNTRIES NORTH OF THE UNITED ST A TES 


195 


height of three hundred feet. This forest is so nearly in its primi¬ 
tive state that there are few parts of the continent where the 
hunting for large game is so good. 

At present the woods of Canada are one of its greatest sources of 
wealth; the lumbering industry is so important that there are hun¬ 
dreds of sawmills at the rapids on the streams, and even in the great 
cities. Among the latter, Ottawa, Toronto, and Montreal are 
important, especially in the manufacture of lumber into such articles 
as doors, blinds, barrels, and furniture. 

Fishing.—It was the excellent fishing off the eastern coast of 
Canada that first attracted the French to America, and fishing is 



Fig. 183. 

Boats setting nets to catch salmon off the coast of British Columbia. 


still an important industry in Canada. Fully fifty thousand people 
in Newfoundland and the eastern provinces, especially Nova Scotia 
and Prince Edward Island, are engaged in cod fishing. One of the 
best fishing ports is Yarmouth in Nova Scotia, although a great deal 
of fishing is carried on from Halifax, Nova Scotia, St. John’s, 
Newfoundland, and many other places. Inland fishing is also im¬ 
portant, for the streams and lakes still abound in trout, pickerel, 
whitefish, bass, and salmon. 

There is much fishing also on the west coast, especially for 
salmon. Great numbers of salmon come to the Canadian rivers 











196 


NORTH AMERICA 


ever y year to spawn, pushing their way upstream, in spite of many 
natural obstacles. Sometimes, in order to get beyond waterfalls, 
they must leap several feet into the air (Fig. 155}, and it is inter¬ 
esting to watch the skill with which they are able to spring out of 
the water and land in the foaming torrent at the crest of the falls. 



Fig. 184. 


Hundreds of salmon in a cannery. 


Sometimes they fail, but returning to the task, they try again and 

again until successful. It is believed that a salmon always returns 
to the same river. 

While traveling „ p the streams they are easily caught in nets set 
across the current (Fig. 183), or by dip nets in the hands of fisher¬ 
men (big. 155), or sometimes by salmon wheels (Fig. 156). Im¬ 
mense numbers of salmon are canned in western Canada (Fio-. 184) 
as well as along the Columbia River and in Alaska. 

Sealing. - We have already learned (p. 178) about the seal fishing in 
Alaska Seals are also found on the eastern side of Canada, but their fur 
is of little value. It is the layer of fat, or blubber, just beneath the skin 
that IS chiefly sought, because it is useful in the manufacture of oil The 
Labrador seals rear their young on the fields of floating ice that drift south¬ 
ward in the Labrador current (Fig. 266). To reach these animals, strongly 
built steamers (Fig. 265) start out from St. John’s, Newfoundland, in the 
eai y spring, as soon as the ice has begun to break up enough for ships to 
push their way through. Upon reaching a group of seals, scores of men 
lush out upon the ice and kill as many as possible (Fig. 190); then they 
return to each body to remove the skin and blubber. y 















COUNTRIES NORTH OF THE UNITED STATES 


197 


Agriculture and Ranching. — What was said about the agricul¬ 
ture and grazing of northern United States applies quite fully to 
Canada. 1 lie warm, damp winds from the Pacific render the climate 
of southern British Columbia much like that of Washington (p. 150). 

Farther east, especially on the plains at the base of the Rocky 
Mountains, in the provinces of Alberta and Assiniboia, the climate 
was at first thought to be too arid for farming, but large areas have 



Fig. 185. 


Sheep on the plains of western Canada. 


been found to be suited to grains. Immense herds of sheep (Fig. 
185) and cattle are reared on these broad plains, in the midst of which 
are several towns. The largest of these is Calgary, which has a 
population of about four thousand. 

In Manitoba the climate begins to be more favorable for agricul¬ 


ture, and the wheat fields found in Minnesota and eastern Dakota 
continue across the boundary far up into that province. Although 
the winters are long and exceedingly cold, the summers are warm, so 
that grain, especially wheat (Fig. 186), oats, and barley, may be 
raised there. 

In the center of this great wheat region is the city of Winnipeg, 
in which flour is manufactured, as in Minneapolis, and from which 
much grain is sent eastward by rail. This city is situated on the 












198 


NORTH AMERICA 


banks of the Red River of the North, which empties into Lake 
Winnipeg. 

farther east, on the peninsula between Lakes Erie, Huron, and 
Ontario, is found the best farm land in Canada. This district is in 
the piovince of Ontario, the most populous of the Canadian prov¬ 
inces, which includes nearly half of all the people in Canada. More 
than two thirds of the inhabitants live outside of the large cities. 
What large cities do you find there? 

Although this country is so far north, its climate is so modified 
by the water of the Great Lakes, that such crops as grapes, peaches, 



Fig. 186. 


A wheat field in Manitoba. 


corn, and even tobacco are raised. In addition, great quantities of 

oats, wheat, barley, and a considerable amount of flax are grown 

t ieie. I lie wheat is made into flour, mainly for home consumption: 

much of the barley is sent to the breweries of the United States, and 

the oats are fed to stock. Some of the finest horses in America are 

reared in Ontario. This province is further noted for its great 
amount of cheese. 

; 

lenAof 4 LL?T ellenl: fan r. ing C0untl 'y is f0lmd practically the entire 

Cuff of b T L T,°? ElVer and alon 8 ‘lie southern shores of the 
Gulf of St. Lawrence. Prince Edward Island is an island of fine farms • 

but the people in the town's, especially Charlottetown, the capital are 

engaged in commerce and fishing. Portions of Nova Scotia abd New 

runswiek, particularly along the coast and in the valley of the St. John 









COUNTRIES NORTH OF TIIE UNITED ST A TES 199 

River, are also farming districts. In fact, one of the most beautiful farm- 
ing legions in all of Canada is in southwestern Nova Scotia, noted for 
man)’ ciops, but especially for delicious apples. It was there that the 
French settlements were made about which Longfellow has written in his 
Evangeline ; and this is often called The Land of Evangeline.” 

Mining. Gold and silver are mined in British Columbia, as in 
tlie Rocky Mountains farther south; but there has been far less 
development of mining in Canada than in the United States. Not 
onl} are there gold and silver, but also lead and copper ores, building 
stone, and coal. Deposits of coal are found both among the moun¬ 
tains and in the plains farther east. 

The famous Klondike region is situated in the Yukon Territory, near 
the Alaskan boundary. Although so near the Arctic Circle, Dawson City 
in the Klondike has rapidly grown to a city with over 10,000 inhabitants. 
The discovery of gold so near the Alaskan boundary, thus causing that 
section suddenly to become of importance, gave rise to a dispute between 
the United States and Canada as to the exact location of the boundary lines 
which was a long time in process of settlement. 

Gold and silver are found in the province of Ontario, especially in the 
vicinity of the Lake of the A oods. Nickel is mined in Ontario, and some 
oil fields have been developed. A small quantity of gold is obtained in 
Nova Scotia and in Newfoundland, where some copper is also mined. 


In spite of the abundance of iron ore in certain places, the 
scarcity of coal near at hand has prevented Canada from producing 
much iron. The coal fields of western Canada are quite inaccessible 
to the eastern cities, and the coal beds of the east have never been 
thoroughly developed. In Nova Scotia, particularly on Cape Breton 
Island, there are extensive beds of bituminous coal of the same origin 
and age as those of Pennsylvania. Recently great blast furnaces 
have been erected at Sydney, Cape Breton, leading to the develop¬ 
ment of an important iron manufacturing industry in the coal fields. 
Since these mines are on the very seacoast, and often on the shore 
of excellent harbors, the coal is readily loaded into ships; but the 
fact that the St. Lawrence is frozen in winter is a great disadvan¬ 
tage, not only to the cities along the rivers, but also to the coal mines. 

Trade Routes and Cities.— There appear to he two outlets for 
eastern Canada, — one by way of the St. Lawrence, the other by 
way of Hudson Bay. But the latter is practically useless because 
floating ice so clogs the narrow Hudson Strait that vessels are able 
to pass through it during only a few weeks of summer. 


15—A G 


200 


NORTH AMERICA 


The St. Lawrence River suffers from the same disadvantage, 
though to a much less extent; and, in addition to the ice, there are 
dense fogs where the damp air from the Gulf Stream is chilled in 
passing over the cold Labrador current (Fig. 266). But in spite of 
these objections, the St. Lawrence offers a much better water route 
than that which has so greatly influenced the growth of New York 
(p. 84). However, New York has such a productive territory to 
draw upon, that it has grown far more rapidly than Montreal. 

The exact location of Montreal (Fig. 1T9), the principal city 
in Canada, is easily explained. It is on the St. Lawrence, at the 
mouth of the Ottawa River, and just below the Laehine Rapids 





Fig. 187. 

A railway bridge across the St. Lawrence at Montreal, showing what a very broad river it 
is. Notice how small the long train of cars is when compared to the length of the 
bridge. There is no bridge across the river below Montreal. 


which furnish a complete barrier to the passage of boats upstream. 
However, by enteiing the canals mentioned on page 194, river and 
lake boats may go up the St. Lawrence; but ocean vessels must 
St-op at Montreal, thus goods from Europe may be carried to Mon- 
tieal, fully a thousand miles from the ocean; then, by transferring 
to other ships, they may be carried on canals, rivers, and lakes 
as far as Duluth, more than twelve hundred miles farther inland. 
Ly this means, and by railways also, raw products from the north, 
east, south, and west collect at Montreal, either to be manufactured, 
or to be shipped farther. 

As in the large cities of the United States, manufacturing in 
Montreal is varied, including the making of sugar, boots and shoes, 




























COUNTRIES NORTH OF THE UNITED STATES 


201 


cotton and woolen clothing, India-rubber goods, various steel and 
iron products, cigars, and multitudes of other articles. 

Farther down the river is Quebec (Fig. 179), a city especially 
noted on account of its historical associations. It was the center of 
the French government in Canada, and for a long time the principal 
city. It is situated upon a high bluff of the St. Lawrence, and is 
fortified so as to command that river. 


For a long time Quebec was engaged in commerce to a greater extent 
than Montreal 5 but the better location of the latter city has drawn the com¬ 
merce away from Quebec, as the better situation of Boston drew the com¬ 
merce away from Salem (p. 63). This has been greatly aided by the 
building of ship canals and by the dredging of the St. Lawrence, thus deep¬ 
ening the channel so as to admit great ocean vessels as far as Montreal. 

Quebec is one of the quaintest and most interesting cities on the conti¬ 
nent. It resembles a bit of the Old World, transplanted to America, and a 
visitor from the United States feels that he is indeed in a foreign country. 
Besides trading and commerce, there is some manufacturing in Quebec, 
particularly the manufacture of boots and shoes. 


Ottawa, another city of great importance, is above Montreal, at 
some large falls in the Ottawa River. On account of its fine water 
power, Ottawa has much manufacturing, and is especially noted for 
sawmills and other lumber manufactories. More than that, beimr 
the capital of the Dominion, it has some beautiful government build¬ 
ings, known there as the Parliament Buildings (Fig. 188). 

The second city in size in Canada is Toronto, located on an 



Fig. 188. 

The Parliament Buildings, Ottawa. 








202 


NORTH AMERICA 


excellent harbor on the shores of Lake Ontario. Being situated in 
the midst of a fertile farming country, and having water connection 
with coal on the east, and lumber and other raw products on the 
west, Toronto has become a manufacturing center. Yet, in spite of 
this, the inhabitants have paid great attention to keeping the citv 
beautiful, and it is one of the most attractive cities on the continent. 

Railways have been of great importance in Canada, as in the 
United States. The greatest railway is the Canadian Pacific, which 
reaches from St. John, New Brunswick, entirely across Canada, to 
Vancouver on the Pacific coast. It is the shortest route from 
England to China and Japan, and much freight is sent that way. 
Across the strait, on the island of Vancouver, is the city of Victoria. 
\Y ith what two cities on Puget Sound may these be compared ? How 
do they compare in size ? (See Appendix, pp. vi and viii). 

One of the oldest cities in Canada, and one that has an excellent 
harbor, is Halifax in Nova Scotia, which is about the size of Mobile 
in the United States. I he reason why it has never become very 
large is easily seen on examining the map (Fig. 178). There is 
almost no country behind it upon which it can draw to aid its 
growth. The narrow peninsula of Nova Scotia is not large enough 
to supply raw materials and manufactured articles in sufficient quan¬ 
tity to make it a great shipping point, and the country farther west 
is too difficult to reach. It is very much easier to send western 
goods to Montreal for shipment than to carry them as far as Halifax. 
Here, almost as well as in the case of Now York and Montreal, we 
see why certain cities flourish or fail to flourish. 


Islands North of North America 


These cold and barren islands have almost no inhabitants. 
Scattered colonies of Eskimos are living along the coast (Figs. 27, 
189, and 192), many of them in almost as primitive a manner as 
when the continent was discovered. 


These people have adapted themselves to life in the Arctic 
region in a way that is truly remarkable (p. 30). They have no 
wood except the occasional pieces which drift to their shores ; they 
lack vegetable food, except the few berries that are found in 
summer; and the land supplies them with almost nothing beyond a 
few birds and the caribou ; yet they are able to exist, notwithstand¬ 
ing the terrible cold of the long, dark winter. 


COUNTRIES NORTH OF THE UNITED STATES 


203 


From the seal, polar bear, walrus, and caribou the 


Eskimos 


obtain 


not only their food, but furs for their clothing, skins for their tupics , 
or summer tents, and blubber for their light and fuel. In fact, ex¬ 
cept for the stones and snow used in their winter homes, or if/loos 
(Hg. 27), and occasional pieces of driftwood, they are dependent 
entirely upon animals for everything they use. 

They are a happy and intelligent people. The latter fact is 
proved by the kinds of boats, sledges, and homes that they have 



Fig. 189. 

Eskimo women at Cape York, Greenland. Behind them is the summer tupic, or skin tent. 


invented, and also by the fact that they are able to live at all amid 
such surroundings. Their struggle for existence is probably greater 
than that of any other race. On the west coast of Greenland they 
are under the control of the Danes, who trade with them for skins, 
walrus ivory, blubber, and eider down. The most northern of the 
Danish trading stations is Upernivik, where white men live farther 
north than any others in the world, lint some uncivilized Eskimos 
have homes still farther north. 

Away from the coast the greater part of Greenland is a barren 
waste of ice and snow — the most absolute desert known in the 
world (p. 13). Its area is about five hundred thousand square miles, 
or more than ten times as large as New York State. Throughout 








204 


NORTH AMERICA 


this area there is no living thing. In the interior, where the eleva¬ 
tion is over ten thousand feet, the temperature, even in midsummer, 
remains below zero, and rain never falls. 

This snow forms a great ice sheet which moves out in all direc¬ 
tions toward the sea ; and there the end of the glacier rests in the 
sea (I ig. 14) ; as it pushes out into the deeper water, great masses are 
broken off, forming icebergs (Figs. 14 and 191). 


,,, Review Questions and Topics. - (1) Tell about the French in Canada, 
i ll at P. 1 ovmces constitute the Dominion of Canada ? Locate each. (3) What 
about Newfoundland? (4) Where do the majority of Canadians live? Why 
there ? (•>) Compare southern Canada with the United States in physiography 
and chmate. (6) Where is some of the grandest scenery? (7) The" best farm 
land . (8) Name and locate the principal rivers. (9) What is the nrincinal 

water route ? (10) Mention some of the difficulties of shipping by that route. 

(11) Describe the climate, physiography, and vegetable life in northern Canada. 
(1-) in regard to lumbering, tell about the extent of forest; kinds of trees and 
cities most noted for lumber. (Id) What provinces in the east are Totally 
n 0 a 0 € m fishing. (14) Name the important fishing ports. (15) Tell about 
the salmon of the western coast. (16) Compare sealing in Alaska with that on 
the coast of Labrador. What use is made of the animals in each case ? (17) Com 

x^S ta iiWr^1h Washingt r with those ° f British 

Montana ” Whv V Ct T P “ C . prlncl P. al occu P atio » Canada just north of 
Montana Why? (19) Tell about the province of Manitoba. (20) Which is the 

S? op f trrt c - iu c r ad n a? why ? < 2i) wh -»^ L L d 

mining re'gions tTCh P t T *?. U " d “ Ca ' ,ada? ( 23 > Locate the <*** 
g gions. (-4) here are the leading coal mines ? (25) Why is Hudson 

^-important outlet ^ Canada? (26) How does the waterroufe ftm 
to Duluth? ' NanttrttCrlCthe^dvaittCCCidtttCt'tC 01 '^ ^ 

(41) What is the condition in GreenlandT ( } ^ ab ° U ‘ the Eskimos - 

(Appe U „ G dix!p p 0 Ta7d ( m ) C °7o P ) ar The 6 1 ?^ ^ ° f the Ul ‘ ited ^tes. 

pictures of different kinds oftreesinCanada 7444°il t ( h Appendi p ( 3 ) Collect 
(5) Lake Ontario is hovymuch^higher'than likVF° f “ Evangeiine.” 
pass from one lake to the other? (6) Explain why Afnnt 1 , a ' 6 Shlps able to 

( 7 ) Why should Buffalo grow Sri T 

who has been in Canada, and have him tell you wh o he t! ( l, 1 d 8011,6 one 
out more about the government of Canada him Of I as8eenthere - (8) Find 

land to have such alrge, productive cotv ^ n) ^ LT 

pleasures of the Eskimos. ‘ ' vine a stoiy describing the 

For References, see Teacher's Book. 



Fig. 190. 

Newfoundland sealers killing seals off the coast of Labrador. 



Fig. 191. 

A Greenland Eskimo kayak. 



Fig. 192. 

A group of Eskimo children in Greenland. 


205 

















XII. COUNTRIES SOUTH OF THE UNITED STATES 

Mexico 


Physiography and Climate. — Mexico consists of four areas of 
different altitudes. Near the sea are coastal plains and other low¬ 
lands. In the interior, occupying a large part of the country, is 
an arid plateau (Fig. 196). The third area includes the slopes 



Fig. 1<)3. 

A scene on the arid plateau of Mexico. A road bordered by cactus. 

between these two, and the fourth consists of peaks and mountain 
ranges which are a continuation of those in southern United States 
Among the mountains, as in the United States, there is a number 
ot volcanic cones, two of them, Orizaba and Popocatepetl, beino- 
among the highest peaks on the continent. 

This part of North America is narrow, and since the north and 
south divide causes some of the streams to flow eastward and the others 
westward, there can be no long rivers in Mexico. The steep slope 

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Trace the route of the proposed Panama Canal. 































Fig. 195 (upper). 

Interior of a Mexican home of the poorer class. 

Fig. 196 (lower). 

View of a part of the arid plateau of Mexico, with mountains in the background. 



















COUNTRIES SOUTH t)F THE UNITED STATES 


207 


from the plateau to the lowland gives the streams a rapid fall, so 
that they have cut deep canyons in the edge of the plateau. More¬ 
over, the arid climate of the interior allows them little water. This 
lack of large navigable rivers has interfered with the development of 
Mexico. Can you suggest why ? 

In the main the movement of the land along the coasts of Mexico 
has been upward. Therefore the coast is regular and there are 
few good harbors. Two projections form the peninsulas of Yucatan 
and Lower California, the former being a continuation of the moun¬ 
tain chain which made Cuba, Haiti, and Porto Rico. Lower Cali¬ 
fornia is a southern extension of the Coast Ranges of the United 


States. 

If the surface of Mexico were near the sea level, the climate of 
the greater portion would be tropical; but owing to the differences 
in altitude, there are several different climates. The low coastal 
plains, near Vera Cruz and in Yucatan, are hot and damp, being 
reached by the winds which blow across the Gulf of Mexico and 
Caribbean Sea. There is also much rain upon the cooler plateau 
slopes of eastern Mexico; but with the exception of these regions, 
the greater part of Mexico has too little rainfall for agriculture 
without irrigation. 


History. —After Columbus discovered the West Indies, the 
neighboring coast was visited and settled, and thus the Spaniards 
naturally came into possession of Mexico. One of the boldest of the 
Spanish invaders was Cortez, who conquered the Aztec and Pueblo 
Indians as far north as northern New Mexico. 

Spain found so much gold and silver in Mexico that many Span¬ 
iards settled there. They developed the mines, started coffee plan¬ 
tations on the temperate slopes, established farms on the plateau 
where irrigation was possible, and carried on cattle ranching in the 
more arid portions. The intermarriage of Spanish and Indians 
caused the population to become very much mixed; and there are 
now in Mexico not only savage Indians and semi-civilized Aztecs, 
but many half-breeds, besides some pure-blooded Spaniards. 

Spain governed Mexico so badly that the people rebelled, and in 
1821 won their independence, establishing a republic with a govern¬ 
ment modeled after our own. There is a number of states, each 
with a government and capital, somewhat as in each of our states, 
and a central government with the capital at Mexico City, where 
the President lives. For a long time Mexico also included Texas, 


208 


NORTH AMERICA 


a part of Colorado, and the country west of them to the Pacific. 
Texas won its independence by war and joined the Union; and by 
the Mexican war the United States obtained the territory marked 

“ ceded by Mexico, 
1848,” in Fig. 240. 

Agriculture and 
Ranching. — Al¬ 
though the climate 
of a large part of 
Mexico is arid, much 
agriculture is car¬ 
ried on by the aid 
of irrigation, which 
is made possible by 
reason of the snow 
and rain among' 

O 

the mountains. On the irrigated farms the products of the temperate 
zone are raised, such as wheat, corn, and beans — the latter being 
one of the staple elements of the Mexican diet. Much fruit is also 
produced, especially apples, pears, peaches, and grapes. 

The Mexican farming methods, which are very crude, are a mixture of 
ancient Aztec customs and those introduced from Spain. In Mexico 
one may still see the wooden plow (Fig. 197), which barely scrapes the 
ground, and also the wooden wheeled cart, drawn by oxen (Fig. 31). 

The home life of the people is interesting. Their houses have but one 
story and are commonly built of a brick made of clay mixed with straw, and 
then dried in the sun (Fig. 198). These sun-dried bricks, or adobes , are 




Fig. 198. 

An adobe house in Mexico. 














209 


COUNTRIES SOUTH OF THE UNITED STATES 


larger than the bricks that we use, and are piled tier upon tier, being joined 
by layers of mud. Often there is but one room (Fig. 195), the ceiling being 
made of brush, and the floor of nothing but the earth or stones. In this 
one room the whole family cooks, eats, and sleeps. Their food usually 
consists of very simple materials, such as unraised bread, baked in the 
flreplace, beans, and occasionally meat, commonly cooked with red pepper. 


I pon the arid plateaus, the plants resemble those in western 
United States (p. 25), and among them are found the sage bush, the 
mesquite, and the cactus (Figs. 23 and 193). One among them, 
known as the maguey , or agave (Fig. 199), is very widely used in 
Mexico. Its stout, sharp-pointed leaves rise from near the ground 
in a tuft. In the center of this rests the flower stalk, which some¬ 
times reaches a height of forty feet, and bears a cluster of white 
flowers on the top. 

It is also called the 
century ant, because 
it requires so long 
(from ten to seventy 
years) to reach ma¬ 
turity and produce 
this flower stalk. 

From the fermented 
juice of this plant 
the Mexicans obtain 
an alcoholic drink 
known as pulque , and 
by distilling it, a drink known as mescal. The tough leaves contain 
a fiber which is made into paper and strong thread. So valuable is 
the maguey that it is carefully cultivated upon plantations (F ig. 190). 

As in western United States, large parts of these arid plateaus 
cannot be reached by irrigating ditches. Such parts are valuable 
for cattle and sheep ranches. Horses and goats are also raised, but 
neither horses nor mules are used so much in Mexico as in the United 
States. The most common draft animal is the little burro , sometimes 
as small as a Shetland pony. 

On the damp lowlands, rice, sugar cane, and cotton are produced; 
also tropical fruits, such as oranges, bananas, and pineapples, quanti¬ 
ties of which are exported from southeastern Mexico. Upon the 
slopes between the tropical lowlands and the temperate plateau much 
tobacco and coffee are raised. 



Fig. 199. 

A field of maguey plants (century plants). 











210 


NORTII AMERICA 


The latter requires a rich soil, abundant moisture, a warm climate, and 
plenty of shade. In order to secure shade, the coffee bush, which reaches 
a height of from ten to fifteen feet, is planted in the shade of higher 
trees. A white blossom appears as early as March, and after the flower 

falls off the coffee berry be¬ 
gins to grow. It resembles 
a dark red cranberry. On 
the outside is a husk inclos¬ 
ing two kernels that fit with 
the fiat sides together; and 
in order to prepare the 
coffee for the market the 
outside husk must first be 
removed. This is some¬ 
times done by the Mexicans 
in a very crude way; but 
on the larger plantations, 
machinery is employed. 

Southern Mexico. — In 
southern Mexico, near 
Central America, there are 
dense tropical forests from 
which are obtained many 
valuable woods, such as 
mahogany, rosewood, and 
logwood. Elsewhere in 
that country forests are 
rare, except upon the higher 
mountains. In fact there 
is so little forest land that 
the Mexicans living on the 
arid plateau find difficulty in obtaining wood for fuel. Much of this is 
dug from the ground; for some of the arid-land bushes, notably the 
mesquite, have long, thick roots which make excellent firewood. 

Besides the valuable woods of the tropical forests, southern Mexico 
produces the vanilla bean, which grows upon a climbing plant. In the 
seed-pod are nestled the very fragrant beans which are used for flavoring 
extracts, for perfumeries, and for medicine. Pepper, made from the dried 
berry of a tropical plant, is also obtained in Mexico. Indigo, useful as a 
dye, is likewise obtained from a berry in this region, and sarsaparilla from 
the roots of a tropical plant. 

The Mines. — One of the principal objects that the Spaniards had 
m exploring the New World was to obtain the precious metals, gold 
and silver; and both in Mexico and South America they were 
rewarded in their search by the discovery of very rich mines, some 




COUNTRIES SOUTH OF THE UNITED STATES 


211 


of them having been previously worked by the Indians. Mexico is 
still a great mining country, producing almost as much silver as the 
L nited States, and being therefore the second silver-producing nation 
in the world. There are also some mines of copper and lead. 

Many of the mines are now operated by Europeans and Ameri¬ 
cans, so that modern methods have been introduced; but in some of 
those managed by Mexicans, primitive methods, similar to those used 
by the Indians, are still employed. Large areas have never been 
carefully examined for ore. In fact, some parts of the country are 
still occupied by Indian tribes, who not only prevent miners from 
coming in, but even defy the government. 

The Cities. — While great numbers of Mexicans are engaged in 
farming and ranching, and are therefore scattered over the country, 
they have, wherever possible, gathered together in villages and small 



Fig. 201. 


The Mexican city of Leon. 

towns. These communities are often necessary in order to obtain 
the water supply needed for irrigation. It is usually too great a 
task for a single farmer to build a ditch; and therefore a number 
combine and thus live close together. 

In a few places, too, there are large cities, the greatest being 
Mexico City, with a population of about 350,000. In this city, as 
in numerous other places in Mexico, there are many line buildings, 
especially cathedrals ; for the Mexicans, like Spaniards in other parts 
of the world, are chiefly Roman Catholics. 








212 


NORTH AMERICA 


Another city in the interior is Puebla, founded in 1531, and 
now having a population of about one hundred thousand. It is situ¬ 
ated near one of the ancient cities, or pueblos, of the Aztecs. San 
Luis Potosi is nearly as large as Peoria, Ill., and there are a 
number of other cities with a population of fifty thousand and over. 

Since the eastern coast of Mexico is low and sandy, it has no good 
harbors, the two largest cities on the seacoast being Tampico and 
Vera Cruz, Avhose harbors are protected by breakwaters. There 
are good harbors on the western coast, as that at Acapulco ; but 
since it is backed by high mountains and a worthless country, that 
port has never become important. 

Because of the ignorance of the working class, and the absence of 
water power and coal, there is very little manufacturing in Mexico; and 
that which is done is largely carried on by hand. However, even the 
uneducated Mexicans are artistic and do some beautiful kinds of hand¬ 
work. There are large tobacco factories in the tobacco district. Some 
earthenware is also manufactured, and some cotton cloth ; but there are 
no manufacturing towns, no great watch and shoe factories, and no im¬ 
mense blast furnaces, such as we find in many parts of the United States. 
But Mexico is now making rapid progress. 

Central America 

The Republics. — South of Mexico are five small nations, known 
as the Republics of Central America, each of which has a govern¬ 
ment modeled aftei that of the United States. I hey are, however, 
not good examples of republics, chiefly because of the ignorance of 
the people. An ambitious general, obtaining a few followers, is 
liable at any time to start a revolution and overturn the existing 
government. Plieie is an almost constant state of turmoil in these 
nations; war after war has occurred; presidents have been deposed 
or murdered; and such a state of unrest has existed that there 
has been little chance for development. Their political condition 
resembles that of the country in which they live, which is subject 
to disastrous eruptions of volcanoes, and to earthquakes of great 
destructiveness. They truly live in a state of unrest. 

llie earthquake shocks have leveled towns and killed thousands of 
people. For instance, San Salvador, the capital of the country by that 
name, was so frequently destroyed by earthquakes that the inhabitants 
decided to choose a new location for their city ; but the one thev selected 
is hardly better than the one they abandoned. 


COUNTRIES SOUTH OF THE UNITED STATES 


213 


Most of Central America is mountainous; and, being in the 
tropical zone, the climate is hot. The rainfall is heavy, especially 
on the eastern coast, where it is so rainy that there are dense jungles 
along the shores of the Car¬ 
ibbean Sea. 

Of the five countries 
forming the Central Ameri¬ 
can group, the smallest is 
San Salvador,* the next, 

Costa Rica. Nicaragua, 

Honduras, and Guatemala 
are about equal in size. In 
addition to these, just south 
of Yucatan, is British 
Honduras (or Belize). The 
largest city in tlie group is 
New Guatemala, the cap¬ 
ital of Guatemala, which 
has a population of over 
ninety thousand. Like 
San Salvador, the inhabitants have been forced to change its location, 
which was formerly at the base of two very active volcanoes; hence 

the name, New Gua¬ 
temala. 

A large portion of 
these countries is oc- 
c u pie d by dense 
tropical forests, from 
which are obtained 
mahogany, rosewood, 
logwood, fustic, and 
other valuable cabinet 
and dye woods. The 
rubber tree also grows 
there, and the produc¬ 
tion of rubber is one of the industries of the region. As in Mexico, 
coffee is raised on the hill slopes in the shade of the forest trees. 
One of the most important districts for this industry is Costa Rica. 
Bananas (Fig. 202), sugar, tobacco, indigo, and cocoa are other prod¬ 
ucts of Central America. 



Fig. *203. 


Natives sorting coffee in Costa Rica. 



Fig. 202. 


Loading a train with bananas in Costa Rica. 


















214 


NORTH AMERICA 


Some gold and silver are obtained, the former near Bluefields, the 
latter in Honduras. 

The inhabitants are mainly Indians, Spaniards, and half-breeds; 
and owing to the uneducated condition of the great majority, and 
even the uncivilized condition of many, there is practically no manu¬ 
facturing carried on in these countries. 

The Panama Canal. — To us one of the principal points of in¬ 
terest connected with this region is the building of the Panama 
Canal across the narrow strip of land which separates the Atlantic 
from the Pacific. Ihis Canal will connect the ports of Colon and 
Panama in the Republic of Panama. The distance is only about fifty 
miles and the elevation but three hundred feet at the highest point. 

Another route for a canal, which at one time found favor in the 
United States, is the-Nicaragua route. This is much longer than 
the Panama route, but it passes over an elevation only about half as 
great. A large part of the distance is occupied by a river and by 
Lake Nicaragua (big. 194), the largest lake in North America south 
of the United States. 

After long consideration by engineers and experts, the United 
States government decided to build the canal by the Panama route 
and entered into treaty with the Republic of Panama for the abso¬ 
lute control and ownership of the work. 

The canal will be of great service to the seacoast cities of North 
America and Uurope. By the canal a steamer going from London 
to San V rancisco will save fi ve thousand miles, while eight thousand 
miles will be saved from New York to San Francisco. Examine the 
globe to see why more will be saved in the latter case. 


The West Indies 

(Map, Fig. 163.) 

From the Yucatan and Florida peninsulas a chain of islands reaches 
to the mouth of the Orinoco on the South American coast. These 
islands inclose the Caribbean Sea; and, with the aid of the penin¬ 
sulas of Florida and Yucatan, the Gulf of Mexico also. Because 
of the mistake made by Columbus, these islands are to this day 
called the West Indies. They are often known as the Antilles. 

With the exception of the northern portion of the Bahamas, this 
entire archipelago lies within the tropics, and therefore has a warm 


215 


COUNTRIES SOUTH OF THE UNITED STATES 


climate; and all have a damp climate. 1 here are many scores of 
islands in the group, only a few of which are large. Two of these, 
Cuba and Porto Rico, have already been described (pp. 180 to 184). 
Tell what you can about them. 

Jamaica. South of ( uba lies the Island of Jamaica, the third in 
size in the W est Indies, and a possession of Great Britain. Its capi¬ 
tal is Kingston, a city nearly as large as Portland, Me. This 
island is mountainous 
in the center, but has 
an excellent soil on 
the lower slopes and 
in the valleys, and 
is very productive. 

The inhabitants are 
mainly negroes or 
mulattoes, there being 
fully forty negroes 
to one white person. 

The women do out¬ 
door work fully as 
much as the men. 

The occupation of 
the Jamaicans is 
chiefly agriculture. 

One of the main products is sugar cane, from which are made sugar, 
molasses, and rum. Early vegetables and fruits, such as oranges and 
bananas, are also raised. Jamaica ginger, of which every one has 
heard, is obtained from the root of a plant that grows in this island. 

Haiti. — The first large island discovered by Columbus in 1492 
was Haiti, and on it he made settlements and opened mines. The 
descendants of the Spanish slaves have now become free, after a 
very complex history, and have set up two negro republics, Haiti 
and Santo Domingo. The capital of the former is Port au Prince; 
and of the latter, Santo Domingo. Many of the natives obtain 
their living in the most primitive fashion, like the negroes of Africa; 
but others, especially near the seacoast, are engaged in raising sugar, 
tobacco, coffee, and bananas. 

Lesser Antilles. —Most of the islands among the Lesser Antilles 
are possessions of Great Britain, though some belong to other 
nations. For instance, Martinique, and Guadeloupe belong to France; 



Fig. 204. 

A field of sugar cane in the West Indies (St. Croix). 


16 —a o 











216 


NORTH AMERICA 


St. Thomas and St. Croix to Denmark; and others to Holland. 
Many of these small islands are volcanic cones, built upon the crest 
of a mountain ridge which is mainly beneath the sea (Fig. 1). Most 
of the volcanoes now appear to be extinct, though in recent years in 

Martinique and in 
St. Vincent there 
have been violent 
volcanic outbursts. 
Hot water and steam 
still rise from the 
craters in other 
islands, showing 
that tlie volcanic 
fires have not alto¬ 
gether died out. 

The products of 
these islands are 
similar to those of 
the other West In¬ 
dies, the most im¬ 
portant of all being 
sugar cane. 

The Bahamas. — 
North of Haiti and 
Cuba are several hundred small islands, called the Bahamas. A 
number of these are inhabited, and on one is situated the city of 
Nassau. These islands have been built by coral polyps. In the 
warm waters of the Gulf Stream, which sweeps over the shallow 
bank on which the islands lie, these minute sea animals have built 
reefs. Waves have washed the dead coral fragments together, form¬ 
ing bais and beaches, and the wind has blown the coral sand into 
low sand-dune hills. In this way the islands have been made. 

Sponges are obtained from the clear, warm waters of the Bahama 
banks. To obtain them, the natives either cruise about in boats, drag- 
ging the bottom, or they strip off their clothes and dive into the clear 
water, tearing the sponge from the bottom to which it is clinging. 

From the land, early vegetables, pineapples, oranges, and cocoa- 
nuts are raised by the inhabitants, who are chiefly negroes. One of 
the industries on these islands is caring for winter visitors. Why 
should people wisli to go there ? 



Fig. 205. 

A tropical scene in the West Indies (St. Croix). 








COUNTRIES SOUTH OF THE UNITED STATES 


217 


The Bermudas 

1^ ar out in the Atlantic, alone in mid-ocean, and 600 miles east of 
the Carolinas, is a cluster of small islands, known as the Bermudas, 
the largest being only 15 miles long by one or two miles in width. 
Being in the open ocean, and surrounded by warm currents, the 

Bermudas have a delightful and equable climate. In midwinter, 

_ 

when people in the same latitude in the United States are shiver¬ 
ing with cold, those in Bermuda are aide to sit out of doors late 
at night. 

This group of islands, which belongs to Great Britain, is inhabited 

mainly by negroes and mulattoes, who are engaged in raising early 

vegetables, especially potatoes and onions, for the American market. 

Another important product is the Easter lily, great fields of which 

are raised for the Easter season. It is natural that many persons 

from the United States should be attracted to such a climate everv 

%/ 

winter. The majority of these visitors stay in the largest city, 
Hamilton. 


REVIEW QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 

Mexico: Questions. — (1) Describe the surface of Mexico. (2) Why are 
there few good harbors? (3) 'Fell about the temperature aud rainfall in the 
different parts. (4) (live the history of Mexico: — the early settlement; the 
industries developed ; the present government; the loss of territory. (5) Mention 
the leading products from the irrigated farms. (0) 'Fell about the methods of 
farming. (7) About the home life. (8) Name some of the plants on the arid 
plateaus; what products are obtained from the maguey? (9) What are the chief 
products on the damp lowlands? (10) On the slopes farther inland? (11) Tell 
about coffee raising. (12) In what part of the country are the forests? (13) Name 
the valuable woods. (14) Name the products of southern Mexico. (15) Fell 
about the mining of precious metals. (10) Locate the principal cities in the 
interior; on the coast. (17) Why is there little manufacturing? (18) What 
kinds are there? 

Suggestions. — (19) Find out why coffee raising requires special care. 
(20) Find an article of furniture made of mahogany. (21) Walk toward Mexico 
City. (22) What reason can you give for its location? (23) Compared with 
water routes, are railways more or less important in Mexico than iii the United 
States? Why? (24) Collect pictures of Mexican scenes. (25) Find some one 
who has been in Mexico, and have him tell you about it. (26) Who is the Presi¬ 
dent of Mexico? (27) Make a sketch map of Mexico. 

Central America: Questions.— (28) Name the five nations in Central 
America. (29) To whom does Belize belong? (30) M hat about the earth¬ 
quakes in Central America? (31) Describe the climate. (32) Locate the leading 
cities. (33) What products of Mexico are also found in Central America? 


218 


NORTH AMERICA 


(34) On the map locate the canal that has been begun across the Isthmus of 
Panama. (35) Where is it proposed to start another? Give reasons in favor 
of each. 

Suggestions. — (3G) What disadvantages do you see in the lack of a central 
government for all the Central American republics? (37) In what other ways 
besides saving coal would a canal there prove of advantage? Let a committee be 
appointed from your class to obtain definite facts about the matter. (38) Why 
would harbors at each end of the canal be necessary ? (39) Make a sketch map 

of Central America. 

The West Indies: Questions. — (40) Into what groups are the islands 
divided? (41) Tell about their climate. (42) What can you say about Jamaica? 
(43) What two republics on the island of Haiti ? Name their capitals. (44) What 
are its products? (45) How have most of the Lesser Antilles been formed? 
(46) What is their principal product? (47) How have the Bahama Islands been 
built? (48) Name some of the products of the islands. 

Suggestion. — (49) How does each of the four largest islands compare in 
area and population with New York State? (See tables in Appendix, pp. i and 
iii.) 

The Bermudas. — (50) For what are they important? 

For References, see Teacher's Book . 



Fig. P. 


Rebuilding San Francisco. February, 1!)08. 


Looking west from Rincon Hill, San 


Francisco. 








XIII. 


REVIEW OF NORTH AMERICA 


Physical Geography. —The natural advantages that North Amer¬ 
ica possesses as a home for man have been the result of slow changes 
extending through millions of years. IIow have the mountains been 



Fig. 20(3. 


The five states having the greatest population in 1000. In this and all the other similar 
figures the relative importance of the states is indicated by the area of the squares. 


brought into existence ? (p. 2) and where are the principal chains ? 
How was coal formed ? (p. 2.) What portion of the continent was 
covered by the glacier? (Fig. 9.) What work of advantage to us 
did it accomplish ? (pp. 11-15.) In what ways is the more recent 
rising or sinking of the coast of importance? (p. 16.) 



Fig. 207. 
219 


Distribution of the Population 
of the United States. 1890. 
LEGEND": 

I_1 Few People 

L—J Sparsely Populated 

E3 Densely Populated 

Hi Most Densely Populated Section 


























220 


NORTH AMERICA 


How do the animals and plants of North America vary ? (pp. 
20-29.) Describe the manner of life among the Eskimos (p. 30); 
among the Indians (p. 31). What European nations endeavored to 



The star shows the center of population of the United States. 

obtain possession of large sections of this continent? (pp. 33-34.) 
Give some reasons why the English succeeded most fully (pp. 34-37). 

Population. At the present time there are probably more than 
a hundred million people living in North America, distributed among 



On these maps the spaces left blank indicate either little or no production. 








































































REVIEW 


221 


the four greater sections as follows : Central America, over four 
millions ; Canada, fully six millions ; Mexico, over thirteen millions ; 
and the United States (not including dependencies), more than 


Towa 


$33649900 


Afivwrzri 

Texas 

Nebraska. 

234999830 






$ 4006903 % 

$ 17.777307 

$39014978 

$3 992602 7 

.Wr* ; 

l99.9-ys.6l0 

734 . 731.100 

703 , 336,100 

13873*668 


Fig. 210. 

Corn production, in dollars and in bushels, in the five leading corn-producing states. 


eighty-four millions. From these figures it is evident that about 
three fourths of all the inhabitants of the continent are living in the 
United States. Figure 207 shows the density of population in the 
different parts of the Union. (See also Fig. 39.) Where is the most 
thickly settled quarter? Why? The most sparsely settled? Figure 
208 gives the location of the cities, the largest having the largest dots. 
In the Appendix (p. iv) is a table of the largest cities. Find the 
dot (Fig. 208) that represents each large city and give its population. 
In what respect are these two figures (207 and 208) alike ? 



City and Country. —The great cities are so numerous, and are so 
often mentioned, that there is danger of overestimating their impor¬ 
tance as compared with the country. At the time of George Wash- 
































222 


NORTH AMERICA 


ington very few people lived in cities. Even at the present time 
about two thirds of our eighty-four million inhabitants live either 
in the country, or in towns with a population of less than eight 
thousand. In Mexico and Canada the proportion living in cities is 
still smaller. In other words, the great majority of persons in North 
America are country people. 


Minnesota, 


$*22MJ.67Z 

Kansas 

North Dakota* 

Ohio 


78/111912 o' 

ft 3 2.469.706 
6i.939.4l2 

ft2G.38J.767' 

SS.QS4.MS 

$27,780.09*. 

4t.l03.nj 

Indiana. 

$24208390 

38.426029 







Fig. 212. 


Wheat production, in dollars and bushels, in the five leading wheat-producing states. 


Country. — I he leading occupations of those living outside of 
the cities have already been studied. Agriculture is the most 
important of all. At the present time there are over five million 
families occupying farms in the United States. About how many 
persons does that represent ? Why should so many people live on 
farms ? 


b igure 209 shows the regions that are extensively engaged in 
raising coin. \Y hat states are included ? In 1898 nearly two bil¬ 
lion bushels were produced ; how many is that to each of our inhab¬ 
itants? How is corn culti¬ 
vated, and what are its 
uses? (p. 124.) 

Many of the states that 
raise corn are also exten¬ 
sively engaged in the 
wheat industry. Figure 
211 shows the wheat 
regions. Tell about 
wheat in the valley of 
the Red River of the 
North, and about the Dal- 

lymple farm in particular (p. 125). Wheat and corn are our most 

valuable food crops. What other grains can you mention, and for 
what is each used? 

The cotton belt is confined entirely to the south-eastern portion 



Fig. 213. 














































































REVIEW 


223 


of the country, as shown in Figure 213. Why ? Name the principal 
cotton-raising states. lell about the growth and uses of cotton 



Texas 


2,BZ2/i08 

&ale* 


Mississippi 


1.J24.7 7/ 


(,eorc/m 

Alabama SCasvlma 

1,330701 

1,1/2,60! 

1030,083 


Fig. 214. 


Five principal cotton-producing states. 


Cuba, 



1.664862,000 


Louisiana 


t33J/CiOld 


Hawaiian 



Hortoftico. tn.ooqooo 


Fig. 215. 



The Tobacco 
Producing Section 
of the 

United States 

\ SCALE Of MILES. 


Some Tobacco raised 
Greatest Tobacco 
raising Section 


(p.102). Wherein 
tli ese states are 
sugar and rice 
grown? How is 
the work carried 
on? (p. 104.) In 

Principal sugar-producing districts in the United States and its \ , .. r 

dependencies what Sections of 

California are 

sugar beets grown and sugar manufactured? (p. 161.) Why is 
sugar cane not raised in California? How does sugar beet differ 

from the sugar cane in 
growth and appearance ? 

A large sugar-refining 
plant is located at Port 
Costa, California. 

From where does this 
refinery receive its raw 
sugar ? Why is it located 
at Port Costa ? 

According to Figure 
216 what states are large¬ 
ly engaged in tobacco 
growing? What is the 
appearance of the plant, 
and how is it prepared 
for use ? (p. 74.) 


Fig. 21G. 




































224 


NORTH AMERICA 


Following are three figures showing the principal states from 
which some of the other important farm products come. 


Hay produc¬ 
tion, in dollars 
and tons, in the 
five principal 
hay-produc¬ 
ing states. For 
what is hay 
used ? 


New York. 


$ 49 .S 8/,667 

Pennsylvania 

Iowa. 

California. 



Ohio. 

€. 009,899 

T&rw 









$ 93 , 767,0117 

$ 28 , 323,063 

$2444 4 . 09 / 

f16,3 71/361 


3 , 690.439 

6 , 7 / 1,309 

2 , 7 / 6,093 

it/S ISIS 70 











—■.-yv.'',,--,.. 






Fig. 217. 


Number of hogs 
and their value in 
the five principal 
s tates. 


Fiveprincipal 

milk-producing 

states. 


larva. 


$/9,390.800 
3.408.26/ 

Missouri 

Ohio Illinois 7 >™. 

$11,696,023 
2949 8!Q 

$11,37216/ 
2,30 7,03/ 

$H,0 77J89 
2/108.263 

$9,3/6,906 

2,684.987 

isgs 




Fig. 218. 


New York 
663 . 3 / 7,243 


Iowa. 



400 , 061,411 


trnn.^yhYinUi 

Illinois 

Ohio. 

368,906,480 

367.269,464 

926,923396 



Fig. 219. 


Mining is a second industry which confines people largely to 
small towns and to the country. About four hundred thousand 
men are employed at it. How many different metals can you name? 



Fig. 220. 














































REVIEW 


225 


Pennsylvania. 


How many other products can you mention that are obtained from 
underground ? 

Of them all, the fuels are probably the most valuable. Why ? 
What kinds are there? Figure 220 shows how extensive the coal 
beds are. Name the states in which the greatest quantities of 
coal are mined. Of what impor¬ 
tance is it that there are coal 
fields in so many parts of the 
country? What kinds of coal are 
there ? And what are the differ¬ 
ences between them ? (p. 4.) De¬ 
scribe a coal mine (pp. 77-78). 

What are the uses of coal ? 

Name the chief states in which 
petroleum and natural gas are 

found. 1 ell also how they have been produced during the past 
ages and what their uses are (p. 78). 

The ores producing iron are among the most important of the 
mineral products. hy so important ? W here are the principal 
iron-producing regions ? (Fig. 223.) How is pig iron made ? (p. 81.) 

hy is not the Lake Superior 
district a favorable place for 



Fig. 221. 

Coal production, in dollars and tons, in the 
live leading coal-producing states. 


Michigan. 


Minnesota 



AUlham< \ Vir 9 tnta Pcnnn smelting iron ore? 


* 91 * 

in tea 
4 a j foie 
iia. 


Among the metals of great 
If importance to man are the 
precious metals gold and silver. 

Fig. 222 . Describe three methods of gold 

Iron-ore production, in dollars and tons, in the milliner (n. 153). Tell about 

gold and silver mining in Cali¬ 
fornia and Colorado (pp. 153-154). In what other parts of our 
country are the precious metals found? (Figs. 224, 226.) What 
two sections are most noted for copper mining? (Fig. 223.) Tell 
about that industry in each section (pp. 134, 155). Where and how 
is stone quarrying carried on in New England? (pp. 53-55.) How 
is salt mining carried on in New r York? (p. 76.) 

Grazing is a third important rural occupation. Point out on 
the map (Fig. 44) the portions of the country largely given up to 
it. Why these? Relate how cattle ranching is carried on (p. 128) ; 
also sheep ranching (p. 161). Which states are most important in 
these industries? (Figs. 228-230.) 


























226 


NOUTII AMERICA 


Lumbering is a fourth great industry that attracts people to the 
country. Figure 231 shows the distribution of the forests. De¬ 
scribe the industry as it is carried on in Maine (p. 51). In the 
Southern States (p. 101). In Michigan (p. 130). In the Northwest 



Fig. 223. 

Leading iron, copper, oil, and gas producing regions. 


(p. 156). Why these differences? Which are the most common 
kinds of trees? What are the products of the forest besides lum¬ 
ber? (pp. 52, 53, and 101.) 

Fishing is a fifth prominent occupation outside of cities. In 
what sections is it especially important? Describe how cod fishing 

is carried on (p. 56); salmon fishing (p. 172); the oyster in¬ 
dustry (p. 72). 

Altogether, therefore, there are five industries that lead the 
gieater part of the inhabitants of the United States to live in small 
towns or in the country. Name these occupations. They furnish 
us with the raw materials for food , clothing, and shelter. What raw 
materials enter into each, and whence does each come? 


Cities. What are the principal occupations in the cities? The 
answer has been repeatedly suggested. What, for instance, are the 
main kinds of business in Duluth? (p. 136.) In Minneapolis? (p. 
141.) In Chicago? (pp. 137-139.) In Buffalo? (p. 85.) In New 
York? (pp. 87-92.) In Baltimore? (p. 93.) In San Francisco? 

(p. 1(0.) Tell what is done in various cities with grain, ores, hides, 
cotton, wool, lumber, and fish. 








Fig. 224. 


Gold and silver producing regions indicated by crosses. 


$19, JO*. ZOO, /X 
924,766 

California. 

$/4,6 IQ. 7)00 

70 7,160 

PANNIHw wOlD 



3 DaJcotn 


$5694900 
275.49J 


.A evctda 

$43 73400 
2/J563 

70/J0 0 

/</3,9B3 


Fig. 225. 

Gold production, in dollars and ounces, in the five leading gold-producing 

states. 


Colorrulo 

Montana. 

$ 27,97 4335 

S/,636, 400 



$20,237,487 


If GO 7,9 00 




Utah. 


Idaho 

\ Arizona. 


$6J00.9 7Q $6336903 
C265600 4901200 


Jirizona 


2,230000 


Fig. 22(5. 


Silver production, in dollars and ounces, in the five leading silver-producing 

states. 










































Fig Q. 

Giant Grapevine — Carpentaria — California 




y - ' 

1 \ , f 

fs\ 



V 

s 

f 



1 . i > m 

m 

• i 9 • •- < S 

liu 










t- 

6 










































Iowa. 


$1/0,/ 4- 7 34 6 

Texas. 

Kansas 

Illinois 

New York 







$93,309,983 
3234,699 

$77,406,313 
2.736,9 46 

$70,739,026 
2,266,2 73 

$64,128,379 
2,0/9.323 


Fig. 228. 


Niimbcr of cattle and their value in the five principal cattle-producing states. 
Many of these are kept, not on ranches, but on farms in the Eastern States. 


$40,437,93* 


New York. 

Ohio. 

Pennsylvanta. 

/.003.299 





JlNip 

$3 7,600066 
901.332 

$34.03 4.063 
3-90.730 

$29,79/046 

633.499 

$29,390.638 
348,747 







Fig. 229. 


Number of horses aud their value in the five principal horse-producing states. 


Montana. 


$9,680,683 


Wyoming 

Oregon. 

New Mexico. 

2,730.47S 

$9./8 6,920 

$7/72,643 

$6,403,90/ 

$6,2/3383 


3.3 77.347 

2,326,023 

7,3 73,468 

3/26,092 


J 


- 



Fig. 230. 

Number of sheep and their value in the five leading sheep-producing states 



Map showing the regions from which much timber is now being obtained. 




228 
































































































REVIEW 


229 


It is evident that one of the principal occupations in cities is 
MANUFACTURING. Where, for example, is the making of iron goods 
especially important? Tobacco? 

Sugar ? Paper? Farming imple¬ 
ments ? Furniture? Freight and 
passenger cars ? Cotton cloth ? 

Woolen cloth ? A single large 
factory may employ thousands of 
workmen (p. G2), and where hun¬ 
dreds of factories are established, 
as in New York, Chicago, and 
Philadelphia, there must be an 
enormous population. More than 
live million persons are engaged 
in manufacturing in the United 
States and the number is con¬ 
stantly increasing. 

A second great occupation in 
cities is that of buying and sell¬ 
ing. Although grain, cotton, wool, 
etc., are produced in immense 
quantities in the country, they are 
not generally bought and sold 
there. That work must be car¬ 
ried on where there are great num¬ 
bers of people ; for where else could it be done so successfully? If a 
person living in a city should want only a bushel of potatoes, lie 
would not go to a farmer for them, but to a store to which many other 

people also go to buy goods. If 
you were a farmer in Illinois and 



Fig. 232. 

Sections where ocean fish are found. 


Pennsylvania 


$264,S7If>Z4 


f 





III fsaetifist 

Ohio 


fejioaate 


Ilhnoa 






Su.ai9.sj-r 
HewJcriey SUJ3/Q.J If 


Fig. 233. 


to fatten, you would not go out West 

to a cattle ranch, but probably to the 

stock yards at Chicago, where many 

cattle are always to he found. Or if 

Value of iron manufacturing in the five y 0 u had a quantity of cotton to dis- 
leading iron-manufacturing states. * , 

pose ot, where else could you do it 
better than in some city where cotton is bought and sold, as in New 
Orleans or Memphis? Not only must there be stores where we can 
buy what we need, but there must also be centers , or cities, where 

17—A G 















230 


NORTH AMERICA 


goods may be bought and sold on a still larger scale. A city bears 
much the same relation to the country round about that a store does 
to the people who live near enough to trade there. 

Since enormous quantities of raw material must be shipped into 
the cities for the manufacture of goods, and since most of the finished 
articles are sent away, the business of shipping, or transporting, 
is a thiid great occupation in cities. Tens of thousands of men are 
employed in loading and unloading cars, boats, and wagons. 

In this country fully four million persons are employed in 
commercial business, — buying, selling, and transporting goods. 
What raw products are taken to Detroit, and what finished prod¬ 
ucts are taken away ? Answer the same in regard to Milwaukee, 
Peoria, Louisville, Providence, Denver, and New Orleans. If 

your home is in the city, answer the same for that; if not, for the 
nearest city. 

1 hus there are three leading occupations in cities; namely, 
MANUFACTURING, trading, and TRANSPORTING. Every city has all 
three; but some that are particularly distinguished for the first are 
known as manufacturing centers; and others, distinguished 
especially for the second, are known as trade centers. Minneap¬ 
olis is an example of the former, and St. Paul of the latter. Give 
other examples of each. Those cities, like Boston, New York, Phila¬ 
delphia, Baltimore, Chicago, San Francisco, and Montreal, the loca¬ 
tion of which is especially favorable for the shipment of goods, are 

great commercial centers, and usually also manufacturing centers. 
Why ? 

I lie relation between country and city is now clear. Nearly one 
half of our men are engaged in obtaining raw materials, anil the 
remainder are mainly engaged in manufacturing them into useful 
articles, in buying, selling, and transporting them. Show by numer¬ 
ous examples how neither class can do well without the other. 

But while they are so dependent, the life of one is very different 
rom that of the other. Recall farm life as described on page 121 
What idea have you formed of farm life on Southern plantations ? 

le miner s manner of living? The ranchman’s? (p. 129.') The 
umbermans? (p. 51.) The fisherman’s ? (pp. 55-57.) 

Recall, on the other hand, what was said about life in New York 

City (p. 88). Give your idea of factory life. Of life in trade 
and transportation. 

What attractions and objections do you find in each of these 


REVIEW 


231 


several occupations ? Is the work of a farm hand more or less nar¬ 
rowing than that of a factory hand ? Why ? Suppose that two young 
men are much alike in ability, disposition, and training; how are 
they liable to grow unlike if one chooses mining for an occupation, 
and the other chooses trade? Give other instances showing how the 
work that one follows influences his manner of life and. development. 

it is difficult to determine which occupation requires the hardest 
work, for success demands one’s best effort, no matter what the occu¬ 
pation may be. But of those living in the city on the one hand, and 
in the country on the other, which are more certain of the ordinary 
necessities of life? Why? Which have more comforts? Why ? 
Which are more independent in general ? Why ? Which have the 
better opportunities for amusement ? Why ? For education ? 
Why ? For homes with-plenty of light and fresh air? Why? 

For many years the population of cities has been increasing more 
rapidly than that of the country, which suggests that people are 
preferring city to country life. Can you give any reasons for this 
in addition to those already mentioned ? 

Dependence of Different Sections upon one Another. — No one 
locality produces all of the materials needed there. Which of your 
foods are not raised near your home? How about the knives, 
forks, dishes, and spoons ? How about the clothes that you wear ? 

Because of the climate, water power, soil, or for some other 
reason, each part of the country is especially fitted for producing 
one or several things, as eastern Kansas for grain, and western 
Kansas for stock, northern Maine for lumber, etc. Indeed, most of 
the articles used in each part of the country must be brought from 
other places. Name the materials that the Montana ranchman needs 
from the Southern planter ; from New England ; from Minneapolis 
and Chicago. Upon what parts of the United States are the inhabit¬ 
ants of Florida dependent ? What do they supply in return ? Make 
a list of the materials used in the construction of your house, and, 
as far as possible, determine where each one may have come from. 
The different parts of the country are of vital importance to one. 
another, much as different parts of the body are. 

Relation to our Territories and Dependencies. — Despite our broad 
territory and enormous number of products, there are some neces¬ 
sary articles that are either entirely lacking, or cannot be produced 
in sufficient quantities within our own borders. Name a few (see 
table of imports, p. 524). Mention some that we are therefore glad 


232 


NORTH AMERICA 


toi receive from Alaska, Cuba, Porto Rico, the Hawaiian Islands, 
and the Philippines. Mention others that they likewise are glad to 
receive from us. State, then, how the United States and its de¬ 
pendencies are of advantage to one another. 

Other Countries of North America. — The principal industries in 
southern Canada and Newfoundland are necessarily similar to those 
in the northern United States. What about agriculture there ? (p. 
197.) Where is coal mined? (p. 199.) Precious metal ? (p. 199.) 
What about grazing ? (p. 197.) Lumbering? (p. 194.) Fishing 
and sealing? (pp. 195, 196.) Compare the raw products of southern 
Canada with those of our Northern States. Name and locate the 
principal cities ; the leading trade route. Mejition the chief kinds 
of manufacturing. (For above, see pp. 199-202.) 

Describe the surface of Mexico (p. 206). The climate (p. 207). 
What are the agricultural products from its arid plateaus ? (p. 

209.) From its lowlands? (p. 209.) From the slopes between? 
(p. 209.) Tell about the forests of Mexico (p. 210). The mining 
(p. 210). Give some reasons why there is little manufacturing in 
that country (p. 212). Locate the principal cities. 

Name the five republics of Central America. Describe the sur¬ 
face of the country and the climate (p. 213). Name the principal 
industries (p. 213). Tell about canals across the isthmus (p. 214). 
Mention the largest islands among the West Indies. What are their 
chief industries? (pp. 214-216.) What industries in the United 
States are not found in Canada? In Mexico ? In Central America? 
What industries in any one of the latter countries are not found in 
the United States? 

Our Relation to Other Countries. — The United States produces a 
far greater quantity of some materials than can be consumed at 
home, while other important articles must come wholly, or in part, 
from abroad. Give examples of each. If we could not secure a 
market for our products in foreign lands, we should suffer seriously ; 
and, if the foreign countries could not be induced to provide us with 
what we need, we should suffer again. Other countries are in the 
same condition. Show how that is true of Canada; of Mexico. 
There is excellent reason, therefore, for a constant exchange of goods 
among the nations of the world. How does the size of our country 
give us a great advantage in this respect ? 

We sell more goods to Great Britain than to any other foreign 
land. In fact, hundreds of millions of dollars’ worth of cotton, 


REVIEW 


233 




wheat, flour, cattle, corn, meat, and oil are sent to that country every 
year (see table of exports, p. 524). We receive, in return, large 
quantities of woolen, cotton, and rubber goods, and articles made of 
vegetable fibers, hides, and skins (see table of imports page 524). 
Trade is carried on in the same manner with Germany, France, and 
other countries. The goods that we send forth are called exports, 
and those brought in, imports. Examine the tables of exports and 
imports on pp. 524 and 525 to see what we send away and receive, 
as well as the countries with which we trade. 

More than half of all our exports and imports are sent by way of 
New York alone. Why? Other ports, next in importance, are : Bos¬ 
ton, Baltimore, Philadelphia, New Orleans, Galveston, and San Fran¬ 
cisco. The total value of our exports in 1907 was 81,988,989,337; 
of our imports, 81,591,878,298. 

Some imports are permitted to euter the country free; but upon most 
of them there is a duty, that is, a charge for the privilege of entering the 
country. This duty is a source of income or revenue for the government. 
It is also intended to serve as a protection to home industries by prevent¬ 
ing foreign products from being sold in our country at a lower rate than 
we can produce them. However, this sometimes causes great hardship. 
For example, a citizen of the United States, living even on the very 
border of Canada, cannot buy from that country such articles as lumber 
and wood pulp without paying a duty upon them. This causes us to pay 
a higher price for many articles than we would have to pay if no duty 
were placed upon them. Therefore, the boundary line between two neigh¬ 
boring countries is often of real importance as a barrier to free trade. 

Transportation Routes.—The chief inland water routes for trans¬ 
portation of goods have often been mentioned (Fig. 238). What 
are they ? About twice as much freight is carried over the Great 
Lakes as on the Mississippi system. Mention some of the principal 
kinds carried on each. The fact that the Great Lakes system extends 
so far east and west is of great importance. This route, by furnish¬ 
ing a cheap means of transportation to the Eastern coast, opens up a 
very productive region in a favorable, temperate climate. Upon 
reaching the coast fliese goods may readily be shipped to Europe, 
our principal foreign market. 

It is largely because of these facts that most of the people of the 
country are living either along the northeastern coast or else from 
there westward to the Mississippi. On Figure 208 find the center 
of population in the United States. 


234 


N Oil Til A MERIC A 


figures 22T and 23 < show an enormous number of railways in the 
United States. I hey now carry fully three times as much freight 
as all the water routes together. In what part of the country are 
most of them found ? Why there ? Which quarter is next best 
supplied with them ? Which portion has fewest lines ? How does 
the location of lines on this figure compare with the location of cities 
on Figure 208 ? What about the direction of a majority of the rail¬ 
way lines ? Count the number of railways that extend east and west 
across the western half of the continent (Fig. 227). In what city 
on the Pacific coast does each of these terminate ? 

Influence of Steam and Electricity. — The steam used upon the 
w atei ways and railways has been one of the most powerful factors 
in populating and developing our country. A century ago it re¬ 
quired two days to travel from New York to Philadelphia? and six 
days from New York to Boston. In the latter case only two trips 
pei week were made by stage. The journeys were not only very 
tiresome, but were also filled with hardships, and often with dan¬ 
gers. There were but thirteen daily papers .in the United States, 
and neither papers nor books could be sent by mail. Letters cost 
from six to twenty-five cents, according to the distance, and, as the 
expense of carrying them was so great, they were not sent from the 
smaller towns until a number were collected. 

Now we can travel as far in an hour as formerly in a day, and 
with much more convenience. There are fully two thousand daily 
papers, and these, as well as letters, may be sent quickly and cheaply 
to every section of the country. We can even send a telegraph mes¬ 
sage to a distant point in an instant, and can talk by telephone with 
a poison hundreds of miles away, even recognizing the tones of his 
voice. To one of our ancestors of a century ago either one of these 

wonders, to which we are now so accustomed, would have seemed an 
utter impossibility. 


Influence of Modern Inventions on Mode of Life. — The effect of 
such a mighty change is seen in every direction. Each year thou¬ 
sands of car loads of fruit are shipped to Eastern cities from Califor- 
nia. If there were no railways, how could it reach these cities? 
What, then, would be the effect on southern California? Also how 
could the corn of the Central States be marketed ? And how ’could 

furniture, sugar, etc., be brought to the Western farmer’s door v 
I race other results of this change. 

If we were suddenly deprived of our quick transportation, within 


REVIEW 


235 


a few days there would be a famine in every large city. Even now, 
when heavy falls of snow block the trains for only a day or two, the 
supply of milk, meat, and other necessities quickly runs low, and the 
prices rise to several times their ordinary value. 

If we had no railway trains, there might also be extensive famines 
from time to time over large areas of country, as there were in Europe 
in the olden times, and as there are even at present in China. Why 
especially in China ? As it is, however, hundreds of articles of food 
and clothing are quickly brought from distant points at a trifling cost. 
Mention several such articles. No one locality is in danger of suf¬ 
fering from want of food, because, if the supply fails there, it is 
easilv obtained from other sections. 

«s 

The effect of steam and electricity on the industries and inhabit¬ 
ants of cities is striking. Persons living scores of miles away often 
do much of their shopping in the cities. Also, owing to trolley lines, 
elevated railways, and other means of rapid transit, those engaged 
in manufacture or commerce are enabled to live many miles distant 
from their places of work and thus secure more healthful homes in 
the suburbs. Because so many people are able to have their homes 
in the suburbs, the cities are not nearly so overcrowded as they other¬ 
wise would be. 

Influence of our Surroundings on Education and Government. — 

When our Union was formed, more than a century ago, many wise 
persons believed it an almost impossible experiment. Our popula¬ 
tion was scattered over so many hundred miles along the Atlantic 
coast (Fig. 32) that people living in one part were apt to know and 
care little about those in another part faraway. It seemed probable 
that quarrels and wars would arise as a result of differences of opin¬ 
ion, and therefore that our republican government might be dissolved 
into several governments. 

Nevertheless our boundaries have been so enlarged as to include 
far more territory than was originally thought possible (Fig. 240). 

Aside from that, more than twenty-three million foreigners have 
settled in our country since 1821, bringing to our shores all the prin¬ 
cipal races of mankind (see Appendix, p. x), and many of the lead¬ 
ing languages, religions, and political beliefs of the world; but in 
spite of all this we have kept in such close touch with one another 
that our Union has grown stronger and stronger. 

Each day, by rail and water, articles are being sent to all parts of 
the country. In all the states the people read the same news every 


236 


NORTH AMERICA 


morning, and whatever books are found especially valuable in one 
section are quickly made known in others. Thus we not only enjoy 
far better opportunities for education than formerly, but we learn to 
know one another; we have the same thoughts, and we feel a mutual 
sympathy. So far as meeting and understanding one another are 
concerned, our country is really far smaller than it was a hundred 
years ago; we are living together like one very large family. 

It has been a difficult task to convert people from so many 
quarters of the globe to one common product, called Americans, 
who believe heartily in our republican government (p. 37). But 
the attempt has not been a failure. Many have gone to the farms, 
where they have helped to supply the raw products; others have 
gone to the mining regions; but great numbers have settled in the 
cities, where they are chiefly engaged in work connected with manu¬ 
facturing and commerce. Some are densely ignorant; but the great 
majority steadily improve in condition, adopt the American customs 
and ideas, and become good citizens. 



Fig. R. 

Ostrich Farm, San Jose, California. 



















Mas sack usotts. 



Fig. 235 . 


Value of the manufacture of textiles (cotton, wool, ete.) in the five leading 

textile manufacturing states. 


ye 70f031 

Fermsyh ant a 

Illinois 

Ohio 



$6J30,74 G.'SJO 

$Sfl66,7Jl.7I9 

fooJlJd&d* 

Aff7S\ 

ftz&ozQvjry fr 

<-— 

Q 





Fig. 23 ( 5 . 


Wealth in dollars of the five wealthiest states. 


237 




























































































































































Rebuilding San Francisco. 


Looking west on Geary Street from Market Street. 
February, 11)08. 



































Navigable rivers represented by heavy lines. 


MiddleAtlantic States. 



The figures represent the number of miles of railway for every one hundred 
square miles of territory in each of the five groups of states. 



Map to show when and how the United States obtained its territory. 

238 








































































































Part II 


GENERAL 


GEOGRAPHY 


<k>;^oo 


I. THE EARTH’S MOVEMENTS 


Form and Size.—The earth is a sphere having a circumference 
of about twenty-five thousand miles, and a diameter of nearly eight 
thousand miles. It is slightly flattened at the poles, however, so that 
the line extending through the center, from pole to pole, — called the 
earth’s axis , — is a little shorter than that extending in the opposite 
direction at the equator. 

The earth is known to be round, not only because people have traveled 
around it, but also because its shadow, as seen in an eclipse, is always 
round. Show how it is true that a sphere is the only body that will always 
cast a round shadow. Give another proof of the spherical form of the 
earth. 

Daily Motion. — The earth is rapidly rotating, that is, turning on 
one of its diameters, called the axis. \V hen we glance out of the 
window of a moving car, the objects we pass appear to be mo\ ing in 
the.direction opposite to that in which we are traveling. It seems 
as though we were standing still. In a similar way the rotation of 
the earth makes the sun appear to rise and set, and for a long time 
people believed that it was the sun that moved, and not the earth. 

In what direction must the earth rotate, since the sun appears to move 
from east to west ? The period of time required for one rotation is called 
a day. Since the circumference of the earth at the equator is about 
twenty-five thousand miles, how far does a point on the equator move in 

an hour ? In a minute ? 

Ry rotating a globe or an apple in the sunlight show how day and 
night are caused on the earth. Hold the sphere still; what would be true 
on°opposite sides of the earth if it did not rotate at all ? What might be 
the effect upon life on the earth if the same side were always toward 

the sun ? 

239 




240 


GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 




Fig. 241. 

Some of the Eskimos whose homes are in the frigid 
north. The mothers carry the babies in fur hoods 
on their backs. 


Yearly Motion.—There are other variations of onr light and 
heat besides those due to the earth’s rotation. For instance, if we 

could spend a summer with 
the Eskimos in Alaska we 
should find weeks of con¬ 
stant dajr, 1 and be able to 
see at midnight (Fig. T) as 
well as at midday. Late 
in the summer, the sun 
begins to set, and finally it 
fails to appear even at noon. 
Then it becomes bitterly 
cold (Fig. 241). 

On the other hand, in 
Central America the sun 
reappears every morning in 
the year; and every noon 
it is almost directly overhead, while for a part of the year it is 
exactly overhead. No snow and ice are seen, and the climate is so 
warm, even during the winter, that the inhabitants wear as few clothes 
as possible. Indeed, some savages 
in such hot countries wear almost 
none (Fig. 242). 

Even where each of us lives, 
the period of daylight and the tem¬ 
perature are changing from week to 
week. Describe these changes as 
you yourself have observed them. 

The causes of these changes are 
indicated in Fig. 243. There the 
earth is represented on September 23 
as receiving sunlight from pole to 
pole. On December 21 the north 
pole is shrouded in darkness, while 
the south pole (which is shut off 
from our view in the figure) is 
within the light. On March 21 the 
sunlight again extends from pole to 
pole ; and on June 21 the north pole 


L..' . •. " 


Fig. 242. 


Savages whose homes are in the tropical 
zone. Contrast their dress with that 
of the Eskimos (Fig. 241). 


1 Exactly at the north pole there are six months of day and six months of night. 











THE EARTH’S MOVEMENTS 


241 



lies fully in the light, while the south pole is in darkness. In other 
words, the earth has a yearly motion around the sun, — called its 
revolution , — and it is the various positions that it takes with refer¬ 
ence to the sun, while on this journey, that cause our changing 
length of day and our seasons. 

Although the sun is ninety-three million miles from us, the earth 
is moving at such a tremendous rate that it completes one journey 
around the sun, or one revolution , in almost exactly 365 days. This 
explains how we get our year. The almost circular path that the 
earth follows in this revolution is called its orbit. 


Fig. 243. 

To illustrate the revolution of the earth around the sun. The shaded portion represents 
night. The end of the axis around which the earth rotates is the point where the lines 
come together (tlve north pole). At what date is this pole turned toward the sun . Aw a> 
from it? Neither towards nor away from it? "What portions of the earth do the sun s 
rays reach at each of these times? 

The Attraction of Gravitation.— In its revolution the earth is moving 
at the rate of more than one and a half million miles per day. What 
speed! And at the same time it is whirling or rotating rapidly on its 
axis, as already explained (see Trimary Took, p. 116). 








242 


GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 


As in the case of the earth’s rotation, one might ask (Primary Book, 
p. 115), Why are we not swept from the earth by the wind ? The answer, 
as before, is that the air, and everything else upon the earth, is drawn 
toward it and held in place by the force of gravity, so that all travel 
together in the journey around the sun. 

If the earth is revolving at such a fearful speed, why does not the 
earth itself fly away into space ? As a stone swinging round at the end of 
a string flies off when the string breaks, so it might seem that the earth 
would fly away, since there appears to be nothing holding it to the sun. 

But there is something to hold it. It is not a string nor a rope, to be 
sure, but something far stronger. The sun is very much larger than the 
earth, in fact, over a million times as large, and attracts the earth to it, 
as the force of gravity attracts men and houses to the earth. This attrac- 
tion of gravitation, which the sun exerts upon the earth, is what prevents 

the latter from flying far off into space; it holds the earth as firmly as the 
string holds the stone. 



nort* 


*ORTH 


Equator 


Tropic of Cap, 


ricorn r~ 

TEM PIRATE 


O'OTM Ff*/ G/ 


North Pole 


Length of Day and Night; the Seasons. —On September 23 the 
sun’s rays are vertical at the equator (Fig. 243), i.e. directly over 
the heads of the people living along that line. Then the days and 

nights are equal over all the 
earth. This time is called the 
autumnal equinox (the latter 
from two words meaning equal 
and night'). 

On December 21 the sun’s 
rays are vertical at the Tropic 
of Capricorn , and all the region 
included in the Antarctic Circle 
is within the light. That is the 
date for the beginning of winter 
in our hemisphere and for our 
shortest day. After that, on 
March 21, the sun’s rays are 
again vertical at the equator. 

1 his time, called the vernal equi¬ 
nox, is the beginning of our 
spring. Then our days gradu¬ 
ally lengthen until June 21, when the sun’s rays are vertical over 

the Tropic of Cancer and light up all the region within the Arctic 
Circle. That is the beginning of our summer. 

The Zones. — The sun gives heat as well as light, and the direc¬ 
tion of its rays determines the boundaries of the zones. In Fio\ 244 


South Polo 
Fig. 244. 

A map of the zones. Make a drawing similar 

to this. 














THE EARTH S MOVEMENTS 


243 


the Torrid Zone marks that portion of the earth’s surface over which 
the sun’s rays are vertical at some time in every year. On that 
account it is very hot there. The north frigid and south frigid zones 
mark the areas about the poles that lie entirely in the light at one 
period and in the dark at another. But the sun’s rays are always 
very slanting there, so that the temperature is always cold. 

Show the boundaries of the temperate zones, and explain why 
these zones are called temperate. 

Review Questions. — (1) What is the earth’s axis ? (2) What was formerly 
believed about the earth’s movement? (3) In what direction does the earth 
rotate? (4) Tell about variations of light and heat, (a) among the Eskimos, 
( b ) in Central America, (c) at your home. (5) What other motion besides rota¬ 
tion has the earth? (6) What determines the length of our year? (7) Why do 
we not notice the rapid movement of the earth? (8) What prevents the earth 
from flying off into space? (9) Tell about the direction of the sun’s rays. 
(10) On December 21. (11) March 21. (12) June 21. (13) Name the zones, 

and give reasons for their boundaries. 



Fig. T. 

Sunset at Sitka, Alaska, 11.30 p.m. 


18 


A G 



















II. WINDS AND RAIN 


WINDS 

Review. — Our previous study of geography has shown that 
very regular winds blow over a considerable part of North America. 
For example, the West Indies, Central America, and southern 
Mexico receive their winds generally from the northeast , while on 



Fig. 245. 

To illustrate how the air moves in a room heated by a stove. 


the western side of the continent, all the way from San Francisco 
to Alaska, they blow quite regularly from a westerly quarter. On 
the other hand, in the eastern part of the United States, the winds 
are irregular in direction, although prevailing from the west. Let 
us examine into the causes of these movements of the atmosphere. 

Effect of a Stove. — As a beginning of the inquiry, we will 
consider the currents of air produced by a hot stove in a room 
(lig. 245). As the air near the stove is warmed, it expands and 

244 











WINDS AND RAIN 


245 


grows lighter. Then the cooler air settles down and flows in, 
forcing upward that which has been warmed. The latter grows 
cooler in contact with the cool ceiling and walls of the room; and, 
being made denser and heavier on that account, it again settles 
toward the floor and then once more moves toward the stove. In 
such a room you can easily observe how much warmer the air is 
near the ceiling, where it has risen from the stove, than near the 
floor at some distance from the stove. 

Winds of the Earth. — The greater winds of the earth may he 
compared to this movement of air in a room, the torrid zone, warmed 
by the sun’s rays, taking the 
place of the stove. There, 
owing to the torrid heat, the 
atmosphere becomes ex¬ 
panded and light. The 
heavier air to the north and 
south flows in, pushing the 
light air away and produc¬ 
ing winds, known as the Diagram to show, by arrows, the movement of the 

trade winds (Fig. 24b), 

which begin in the temperate zones, hundreds of miles away. 
Since the heated air must escape somewhere, it rises far above 
the surface, and then moves back in the same direction from which 
it came, forming the return trades or anti-trade winds (Fig. 246). 
The atmosphere extends many miles above the earth, so that there is 
plenty of room for two winds blowing in opposite directions, one 
above the other. 

In Cuba, the Caribbean Sea, and elsewhere, where the trade winds 
at the surface are blowing toward the southwest, one notices that the 
clouds far up in the sky are steadily borne in the opposite direction by 
the anti-trades. Also, when volcanoes in Central America have been in 
eruption, the ashes that were blown out from them have been carried 
hundreds of miles in a direction opposite to that of the prevailing trade 
winds at the surface. 

Being cooled on account of its great height, the air of the anti¬ 
trades slowly settles, some of it coming to the surface at about a 
third of the distance to the poles. There it spreads out, a part con¬ 
tinuing on toward the poles, a part returning to the equator as the 
trade winds (Fig. 246). 

As you see, the correspondence between these currents in the 









GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 


24G 

atmosphere and those in the room is quite close. In both cases air 
moves in toward a heated place, then up, then outward and down, 
and once more inward toward the heated part. Make a drawing to 
illustrate these four directions of movement of the air. 

Effect of Rotation. — There are differences, however, and one of them 
is especially important. In the case of the room, the currents move 
directly toward the stove; then, after rising, directly away from it. If the 
earth stood perfectly still, the trade winds would doubtless blow directly 
toward the equator from the north and south and the others directly 
away from it. 

The daily rotation of the earth, from west to east, greatly interferes 
with that movement. Because of rotation, the trade winds are turned, 
or deflected, from their straight course toward the equator. Those in the 
northern hemisphere are turned to their right, so that they come from the 
northeast ; and those in the southern hemisphere are turned toward their 
left, and therefore come from the southeast. 

The direction of the anti-trades is also changed toward the right in 
the northern hemisphere, where they blow from the southwest, and 
toward the left in the southern hemisphere, where they blow from the 
northwest. Thus the anti-trades blow over the same route as the trade 
winds, but in the opposite direction. We can only state the facts here, 
for the explanation is far too difficult to give. 

Wind Belts. — Now we see why the West Indies, Central America, 
and southern Mexico receive such regular winds from the northeast, 
for they lie in the range of the trade winds just described. The 
prevailing west winds of the Pacific coast are a part of the air of the 
anti-trades that has settled to the surface and is moving on in a great 
w liiil aiound the poles. 1 his region is known as the belt of ’prevailing 
westei lies, because the air moves so steadily from a westerly quarter. 

If you watch the higher clouds you will find, in most parts of the 
United States, that they are moving from the west toward the east; 
and the winds at the surface are also more often from the west than 
from any other quarter. This section, including northern United 
States and Canada, in which the prevailing winds are so nearly from 
the west, is known as the region of prevailing westerlies. 

What has been said about the winds of North America applies, 
with some exceptions, to other parts of the world; in other words’ 
there are several belts of regular winds extending around the earth. 
Figure 249 shows these very clearly. Point out the belt of trade 
winds north of the equator. Point out the prevailing westerlies. 
Point out the two corresponding belts of wind on the south side of 


WINDS AND RAIN 


247 


the equator. Notice how much more definitely these are all shown 
over the ocean than over the land. 


Winds are much more steady on the ocean than on the land for sev¬ 
eral reasons, the principal one being that the temperature of the water 
does not change so quickly as that of the land. On land one place may 
become much warmer than another not far away, and then winds blow 
toward the warmer section. This often changes the direction of the regu¬ 
lar winds. 

So steady are the prevailing westerlies over the ocean, that, in the 
southern hemisphere, where there is little land, they almost always blow 
from the west. Indeed, it is said that vessels, choosing a course south of 
Africa and South America, 
can sail around the world 
with fair winds almost all 
the way, if they go toward 
the east; but if they sail in 
the opposite direction, the 
winds are against them. 

All these belts of wind 
owe their existence to the 
differing temperatures of 
the several zones ; and 
since the sun, which is 


WSm 

AlllS 

wmm 

PT/V 0 

A/W 7 ; 

~<f jr 00 4 

A 1 L /Wg W,?STL 

"horse • 



BELT : 

% . 0 F 

. 

’ EQUATOR \ 

\o\ 


20 -- —- - 

TROPIC OF CA* 

R1CORH 8 

0 \ \ 


Fig. 247. 


the cause of these zones, Diagram to show the position of the trade-wind belts 
has shone for millions of and th< gf of calms iu summer ' Coml ' are with 

t igure 24o. 

years, and will probably 

continue to shine for millions more, we may be certain that these 
great winds are permanent winds . The currents of air in a room 
cease when the stove grows cold ; but, for ages to come, the sun will 
heat the torrid zone more than the temperate. 1 bus the trade winds 
will be kept in motion day and night, winter and summer, as they 
now are, and as they were when they helped Columbus on his \en- 

turesome voyage across the Atlantic. 

Belt of Calms and Belt of Horse Latitudes. — Besides the four 
belts of winds just mentioned there are three belts of calms and 
light, variable winds. As the trade winds approach the central 
line of the heated belt, or the heat equator , they travel more 
slowly. Then, owing to expansion from heat, and to pressure 
from the colder air behind, the air rises over a broad area to a 
great height. In this belt of rising air, whatever winds are felt 















248 


GENERA L GEOGRAPH Y 


are light and changeable, and calms often prevail ; hence the 
name belt of calms , as shown in Figures 246 and 249. The width 

of this belt is several 
hundred miles. 

Northern Mexico and 
southern California are 
situated in another belt of 
light winds with frequent 
calms. Here, however, as 
stated before (p. 245), the 
air of the anti-trades is 
settling toward the earth, 
a part to return as trade 

winds to the belt of calms, 

Diagram to show the position of the belt of calms and an( J a p ar t to continue 011- 
the trade winds in winter. Compare with Figure 247. 1 

ward as the prevailing 
westerlies. This is known as the region of the horse latitudes . J 
Point out the belt on Figures 246 and 249. Show the corre¬ 
sponding belt on the south side of the equator. 

Effect of Revolution. — The belt of most intense heat is not always 
in exactly the same part of the earth, being north of the equator in June, 
when the sun is vertical at the Tropic of Cancer, and south of it in Decem¬ 
ber, when the sun’s rays are vertical at the Tropic of Capricorn. This 
causes ail these belts to change their position somewhat, being farther 
north in our summer than in our winter (Figs. 247 and 248). The effects 
of this fact are very important, as we shall see (p. 254). 



Rain 

Causes for Rain. — Knowing the wind belts that encircle the 
eaith, we have a key to the principal rain belts ; for winds are the 
water carriers of the earth. Water which is evaporated from the 
surface of the oceans and lands is borne along in the air. As 
lain oi snow it descends to the earth, abundantly along most coasts, 
and, usually, less liberally toward the interior of the continents. 

It is an important fact that there can be more water vapor in warm 
than in cool air. Therefore, whenever air is cooled sufficiently some of 

1 Called horse latitudes because sailing vessels, carrying horses from New England 
to the West Indies in the early days, were so delayed by the calms that the horses had 
to be thrown overboard when the drinking water gave out. 





























249 


A diagram to show the principal wind belts of the earth. 
















































250 


A rainfall map of the world. In which of the wind belts (see Fig. 249) do we find the heaviest rainfall? On which coasts? Where are the 
deserts? Explain the location of those on each continent. Why should there be more desert in Africa than in South America? 














































































WINDS AND RAIN 


251 


the water vapor which it bears is condensed. For example, vapor 
condenses on an ice-water pitcher because the air next it is cooled; 
and dew forms on grass when the air near the ground grows cool in 
the evening. In a like manner the vapor in our breath forms a little 
cloud when the breath in winter is cooled by mixture with the cold 
outside air. 


Rain is usually caused by the cooling of air which is rising to 
higher levels and therefore expanding. When you open the valve 
of a bicycle tire, the outrushing air expands and grows cool ; and if 
you place your finger over the valve, you can feel the coolness. In 
a similar way, when air rises above the surface of the earth it ex¬ 
pands because there is less air above to press upon it. Then it 
grows cool; and while doing so, some of its vapor may be condensed 
to form clouds and raindrops. So whenever air from the damp 
oceans is rising over highlands, or whenever it is being raised over 
warm lands by the cooler air that pushes underneath, as in the belt 
of calms, rainfall naturally results. Briefly, — when air rises , it ex¬ 
pands and cools ; and then rain commonly follows. 

On the other hand, air that is settling grows warmer, and instead 
of giving up its vapor, it becomes dry and clear. This may again 
be illustrated by reference to the bicycle; for when air is pumped 
into the tire, the pump becomes warm as the air is compressed. In 
a like manner, air that is descending toward the earth’s surface is 
compressed and warmed because of the increasing pressure of the 
atmosphere above. Since there can be more vapor in warm than 
in cool air, when air flows down the mountain slopes, or descends 
from high altitudes, as in the horse latitudes, clouds disappear and 
water is evaporated from the ground. Briefly, — when air descends , 
it becomes dense and grows warmer; then the sley is clear and the 
iceather dry. 

Rain Belts in North America. — These facts have been well 
illustrated in the rains of North America. The northeast trade 
winds, having gathered a large amount of vapor from the Atlantic 
Ocean, the Caribbean Sea, and Gulf of Mexico, deposit it on the 
windward slopes of the West Indies, southern Mexico, and Central 
America (Fig. 251). The southwestern slopes of these islands, 
however, receive a smaller quantity, and the western coast of Mexico 
is therefore arid. The prevailing westerlies, having traveled a 
long distance over.tbe Pacific, likewise cause heavy rains along the 
western coast of North America (Fig. 252). But the land farther 


252 


GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 


east grows more arid, be¬ 
cause these winds also lose 
their moisture in passing 
over the land. Northern 
Mexico and southwestern 
United States, lying within 
the horse latitudes, where 
the air is descending, re- 
- ceive very little rain and 
are arid (Fig. 252). 

Other Rainy and Arid 
Regions of Northern Hemi¬ 
sphere.— Other regions 
tying within these belts 
illustrate the same prin¬ 
ciples. For example, note 
(Fig. 251) what heavy 
rains are brought to 
northern South America by the northeast trade winds. The 
Hawaiian Islands, also lying within their range, are kept moist by 
them, especially on 
the windward side 
of the highlands, 
just as in the West 
Indies. 

But the north¬ 
east trade winds of 
the Old World de¬ 
posit little moisture, 
as is clearly shown 
by Figures 250 and 
253. One reason 
is that they blow 
largely over land, 
rather than over 
water; it is mostly* 
level land, too. 

Another very im¬ 
portant reason is The lieav y rainfall where the prevailing westerlies blow over 
^ • the rising coast. What is the condition farther east? What 

mat tile air IS mov- is the case where the trade winds blow? Why? 




Fig. 251. 


The rainy east coast and arid west coast of the trade 
wind belts. Also the rainy belt of calms of South 
America. 











































































































WINDS AND 11 AIN 


253 


ing from a cooler to a warmer region and is therefore not forced 
to give up its moisture. On the contrary, it can take more vapor 
and is steadily evaporating water. Thus the trade winds are drying 
winds on the land, and this accounts for the desert of Sahara and 
other deserts. Europe is affected by the prevailing westerlies much 
as western North America is. Hut its three southern peninsulas, 
like southern California, lie partly within the horse latitudes, and 
their southern portions are much affected by drought. 

South of the Equator. — South of the equator we find the south¬ 
east trade winds causing heavy rains on the east coast of South 
America (Fig. 251); then 
proceeding across the con¬ 
tinent, they cause other 
heavy rains in the neigh¬ 
borhood of the Andes ; but 
parts of Peru and Chile 
on the western side of 
the mountains are left 
to suffer from drought 
although within sight of 
the greatest ocean in the 
world. Australia, lying 
in the same belt of winds, 
is similar. But this time 
the loftiest highlands are 
close to the east coast, 
so that nearly all the 
remainder of the country suffers for want of rain (Fig. 254). 

Belt of Calms.—The belt of calms is the most rainy of all 

the belts (Figs. 251, 253, and 254), because its hot, moisture-laden 
air is rising and cooling. After a clear night in that region, the 

sun usually rises in a cloudless sky. As the morning advances 

and the heat grows more intense, the damp air rises more rapidly; 
then small clouds appear and grow steadily until rain falls from 
them. Showers occur practically every day, increasing in the 
afternoon. When the sun sets and the air rises less actively, the 
clouds melt away, the stars appear, and the night is as clear as 
before. Our hot, muggy summer days, with heavy thunder showers 
in the afternoon and evening, illustrate the weather that is repeated 
day after day in this belt of calms. 



Fia. 253. 

To illustrate the desert regions in the trade-wind and 
horse-latitude belts of Africa. Also to show the 
heavy rainfall in the belt of calms. Find the simi¬ 
lar belts on Figures 251, 252, and 254. 











































254 


GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 


It is the lieayy rain there that supplies the dampness necessary for 
the dense jungles of the tropical forest of the Amazon valley, Cen¬ 
tral Africa, and the East 
Indies (Fig. 250). 

Migration of Rain Belts. 
— Tiie statement has been 
already made (p. 248) that 
the wind belts shift north¬ 
ward in summer and south¬ 
ward in winter. One of 
the most important effects 
of this change is upon the 
rainfall. In the torrid 
zone, for example, many 
places are within the belt 
of calms during the sum¬ 
mer of their hemisphere, 
and are swept by the dry¬ 
ing trades in their cooler 
months, thus dividing the 
year into wet and dry seasons. The part of northern Africa lying 

between the Sahara and the Sudan affords an instance of this (Fio*s. 
255 and 256). 




Fig. 253. 


Winds and rainfall in South America and Africa from December to February. 

Eastern United States and Canada. — Thus far only the regular 
wind and rain belts have been considered, and no explanation has 
>een made of the condition of variable winds in our Eastern States. 
One might expect that the west winds, so dry after passing over 



Fig. 254. 


Showing the heavy rainfall on the east-facing coast of 
Australia where the trade winds blow. Notice also 
the arid interior and west coast. What is the con¬ 
dition in the belt of calms? What resemblance do 
you see to Figure 252 ? 





























































WINDS AND RAIN 


265 


the highlands of western United States, would continue onward 
and cause our northeastern states to be arid also. But we know, 



Fig. 25<>. 


Winds and rainfall in South America and Africa from June to August. Compare with 
Figure 2o5 to see how the belts of heavy rain have migrated as the wind belts have 
shifted with the change of season. 

in fact, that abundant rains fall in this section. We know, also, 
that there are no very regular winds over this vast area; on the 
contrary, both winds and temperature are quite changeable. In 



Fig. 257. 


Building wrecked by a cyclone (Fig. 258). 


any particular locality on one day it may be warm and pleasant, 
with a south wind ; the next day a cool, dry wind blows from the 
northwest; after two or three days this gives place to a cloudy sky 










































256 


GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 


and rain, brought on by south or east winds; and then fair, cool 
weather sets in, with northwest winds again. 

Let us inquire into the cause of these changes. From time to 
time out in the northwest there comes to be a place, or an area , of low 
pressure (Fig. 259); that is, an area where the air is lighter than that 



Fig. 258. 

Photograph of a cyclone in the upper Mississippi Valley. 


over the surrounding region. The air from the surrounding country, 
where the pressure is greater, hurries toward the low-pressure area 
with a whorling motion, even from hundreds of miles away, causing 
winds which on the south side blow from a westerly direction, on the 
east side from a southerly direction, and so forth (Fig. 259). Toward 



A weather map of the United States on a winter’s day. The lines are lines of equal air 

lGWe f t J ie fi ^ re \ the the air (29.5 representing lighter air than 

29.<). the pressure is determined by an instrument called the barometer.' 

































WINDS AND RAIN 


257 


the place where the pressure is low, the air is flowing in from all sides, 
then rising. As it rises, the vapor condenses, forming clouds and rain, 
as in the belt of calms'. Such an area of low pressure, with its clouds and 
rain, is known as a cyclonic storm area; and it is during these storms 
that most of the rain of the United States and Canada comes. 

Instead of remaining in one place, the cyclonic storms steadily 
travel onward, usually beginning in the northwest and always pass¬ 
ing eastward (Fig. 260). The paths followed by the storm centers 
generally pass over the Great Lakes, down the St. Lawrence Valley 
to the ocean. they move eastward because the prevailing westerlies 



Weather map for the day following that of Figure 259. Study this carefully, and tell how 

it differs from Figure 259. 


carry them along; indeed, these great, whirling, cyclonic storms are 
apparently eddies*in the prevailing westerlies, similar to the eddies 
in the current of a stream. 

The area of country upon which rain may be falling from the 
clouds of one of these storms is sometimes very great, places fully a 
thousand miles apart sometimes receiving rain at the same time. 
As the storm moves eastward, it grows clear on the western side, 
while the cloudy and rainy parts appear farther and farther east¬ 
ward (Figs. 259 and 260). 

The vapor is brought toward the storm center from the Gulf 
and the Atlantic Ocean, being carried by the winds for hundreds 
of miles, even into Canada. The fact that there is no high moun- 





















258 


GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 


tain range extending across southern United States is of great 
importance. If there were such mountains, instead of the low 
Appalachians and the open plains of the Mississippi Valley, the 
winds could not carry their vapor so far, but would drop it on the 
coast side, leaving the interior a desert. 

Not only are rains caused by these storms, but hot spells and other 
changes as well. Warm winds, blowing toward the low pressure areas from 
the south, are the cause of the winter thaws and the summer hot spells in 
the Eastern States. It is during these hot spells that thunder storms come; 
also in some places, come tornadoes, often called “ cyclones” (Fig. 258), in 
which the winds blow so fiercely that houses are torn to pieces (Fig. 257). 

After a low pressure area has passed eastward and the storm is over, 
the wind generally blows from the west. This causes cool, dry weather in 
summer, and cold snaps in winter. Then it is said that a cold leave 
has come; and this, sweeping over the East, and even far into the South, 
often does great damage to fruit trees and delicate plants. 

Weather Maps. — Figure 259 shows a cyclonic storm in the northwest, 
the arrows indicating how the winds blow in from all sides toward the 
center of low pressure. Farther east is a region of high pressure. In 
Figure 260, the high and low pressure areas are again represented; but, 
since it is a day later, they have moved eastward; and the following day 
they would be still farther east. You see from these maps how the 
direction of the wind for any one locality has changed as the low pressure 
areas have passed over the country. 

These storms are so regular, and their importance is so great, that the 
United States government has established a Weather Bureau which employs 
a large force of men, stationed in different parts of the country, to observe 
the pressure of air, direction of wind, etc., and to telegraph the facts to 
Washington. These observations, made at the same time at all stations, 
furnish information which enables men to foretell the weather. Their 
predictions are greatly aided by the fact that all of the storms and high 
pressure areas will move eastward. 

Maps, similar to Figures 259 and 260, called weather maps, are also sent 
out. By the predictions of the Weather Bureau, farmers and gardeners 
are warned against damaging frosts, and sailors against severe storms. 
Especially valuable service has been rendered by the Weather Bureau 
in predicting the very fierce hurricanes that arise in the West Indies and 
sometimes do great damage there, as well as on our own coast. These 
resemble the cyclonic storms, but are much more destructive. 

Cyclonic Storms in Europe. — Europe is also largely under the in¬ 
fluence of the prevailing westerlies; and cyclonic storms often cross 
the ocean and reach far into Europe (T lg. 2615* There, as here, the 
extent of the country upon which rain may be falling from the clouds 
of one of these storms is sometimes very great. The weather like- 


WINDS AND RAIN 


259 



^ ise is made changeable by these storms. That is, in any particular 
locality it may be warm and pleasant one day, stormy the next, 
then clear and cool, or cold. Similar cyclonic storms develop in the 
pie vailing westerly belt of the southern hemisphere, where they 
bring changes of weather to southern South America, Australia, 
and the islands of the great Southern Ocean. 

Sea and Land Breezes; Monsoons.— there is one other great 
source of disturbance of the regular wind belts of the earth and 
of the rain belts that 
are dependent upon them. 

This is found in the dif¬ 
ference in temperature be¬ 
tween land and water. 

Land warms and cools 
much more quickly than 
water. The land along the 
seashore on a hot summer 
morning soon becomes 
warm, and the air above it 
is heated, as over a stove, 
so that it expands and 
grows light; but that over 
the water remains cool, 
like the sea itself. This 
cooler air then pushes in 
toward the shore; and 
thus a breeze from the 
sea, or a sea breeze , is 
created. In summer, 
such a breeze is frequently 
felt at the seashore and along the shores of large lakes, and it helps 
to make the temperature agreeable. At night, the land cools more 
rapidly than the sea; and then the cool air from the land moves out 
toward the sea, forming a land breeze. 

Likewise, in summer the continents as a whole become warmer 
than the oceans; in winter they become cooler. And in some parts 
of the world these differences create winds on an enormous scale. 
Such winds exist in Mexico and our Gulf States; but in Asia they 
are far more important. 

The interior of that continent is so far from the ocean, that there 


Fig. 201 . 

A cyclonic storm in Europe which came from the ocean. 
The heavy black line shows the course followed by 
its center. Notice how the winds blow toward the 
center. 


19—A O 













200 


GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 




VER’ LIGHT RAINFALL 
MODERATE RAINFALL 


HEAVY RAINF 
HEAVIEST ft 


Delhi.® 


Calcutta 


an 


VERY LIGHTRAINFAI 

MODERATE <« 

• I 

HEAVY" 


Colombo 


Fig. 2(32. 

The winds and rainfall during the summer monsoon 

of India. 


are naturally very great extremes of temperature. During the win¬ 
ter, the heavy air over the cold land settles down as drying air, and 

presses outward beneath 
the warmer air which lies 
over the ocean. This pro¬ 
duces dry land winds. In 
summer, on the other hand, 
the air over the cool water 
crowds in, raises the hot 
air of the continent, and 
produces ocean winds and 
rain. This is well illus¬ 
trated in the southern part 
of Asia. Heated by the 
nearly vertical rays of the 
sun during the northern 
summer, the land there be¬ 
comes warmer than the 
ocean. Toward this heated area the cooler air from the Indian 
Ocean crowds in, causing ocean winds. 

This makes the summer winds opposite in direction to those of 
winter, when the air from the cold lands of interior Asia is flowing 
out toward the warmer 
Indian Ocean (Fig. 263). 

Winds of this kind, which 
blow in opposite directions 
in different seasons, are 
better developed in India 
than in any other part of 
the earth, and it was there 
that they received the 
name, monsoon winds. The 
term monsoon is now ap¬ 
plied to in ward-flowing 
summer winds and out¬ 
ward-flowing winter winds 
of any large mass of land. 

When the summer mon¬ 
soons blow, the rainy season comes in India (Fig. 262). The rainfall 
is especially heavy where the moisture-laden air ascends the steep 


Fig. 263. 

Map of the winter monsoon winds and rainfall of 
India. Compare with Figure 262 , and notice espe¬ 
cially how very light the rainfall is in one season 
and how heavy it is in the opposite season. 


















































































































WINDS ANI) RAIN 


261 


slope of the Himalayas. In one part of this district, opposite the 
head of the Bay of Bengal, there is three times as much rain in 
July alone as falls in well-watered portions of the United States 
during the entire year. The winter monsoon, on the other hand, is 
so dry that vegetation withers and the soil becomes parched and 
cracked, as in a desert (Fig. 263). 

While the north and south temperate zones are both called temperate , 
and have many features in common, they are quite unlike in their winds. 
In the northern hemisphere the broad continents become very hot in 
summer and cold in winter. Since the temperature of the oceans remains 
more uniform, the regular winds are greatly interfered with, as hy the 
monsoons. In the south temperate zone, on the other hand, there is little 
land and a vast expanse of ocean. The temperature of the water changes 
but little, and the narrow lands have their temperature largely determined 
by winds from the oceans. In the south temperate zone, therefore, there 
is little chance for monsoons. 

Review Questions: (1) Tell about the directions of the regular winds of 
North America. (2) Describe the circulation of air in a room heated by a stove. 

(3) Compare this circulation of air with that in the regular winds of the earth. 

(4) What effect has rotation on the direction of these winds? (5) What are the 
names of the regular winds of North America, and over what sections of the 
continent do they blow? (6) Locate and describe the wind belts of the earth. 
(7) What proofs have we that these are permanent winds? (8) Tell about the 
movement of air in the belt of calms. (9) In the horse latitudes. (10) What is 
the effect of the earth’s revolution on the location of all of these belts? (11) Tell 
about the causes of rain. (12) Show how the trade winds and westerlies affect 
the rainfall of North America. (13) What about the rainfall in northern South 
America and in the Hawaiian Islands? (14) How do you account for the desert 
of Sahara? (15) Tell about the rainfall in Europe. (It!) In South America, just 
south of the equator, and in Australia. (17) In the belt of calms. (18) Show how 
the migration of the wind belts affects rainfall, and give an example. (19) Tell 
about the winds and rain in Eastern United States and Canada. (20) About 
weather maps, and the value of the Weather Bureau. (21) What about the 
cyclonic storms in Europe? (22) Give the cause of sea and land breezes. (23) Of 
monsoons. Give example. (24) Why do monsoons interfere with the regular 
winds muck less hi the southern than in the northern hemisphere? 

Suggestions. — (1) Estimate the number of barrels of water that falls on 
an acre of ground, or upon a city block, in one year, where the rainfall is forty 
inches. (2) How is a movement of air secured in your schoolroom in order to 
ventilate it? (3) Make a drawing to show the direction of the regular winds 
of the world. (4) Watch the higher clouds to see in what direction they are 
moving. (5) Bead once more the section on “ Air ” in the Primary Book, page 71. 
((!) Write an account of the change in the weather for five days in succession : — 
the wind direction and force; the clouds; rain; temperature; and, if possible, the 
air pressure. (7) Read the chapter on cyclonic storms in Tarr’s First Book of 
Physical Geography, pp. 102-125. 

For References, see Teacher's Book. 


III. OCEAN MOVEMENTS AND DISTRIBUTION OF 

TEMPERATURE 


Like the air, the oeean water is in motion, its three principal 
movements being wind waves, tides, and ocean currents. 

AVind AVayes 

AVaves are formed by winds which blow over the surface of the water 
and ruffle it, sometimes, during storms, causing it to rise and fall from 
twenty to forty feet. 

In the open ocean waves are rarely very dangerous to large vessels; 
but upon the seashore they do great damage to vessels and even to the 
coast itself, wearing away the rocks and dragging the fragments out to 
sea. The constant beating of the waves is slowly eating the coast away. 

Tides 

What the Tides are. —People living upon the seacoast are famil¬ 
iar with the fact that the ocean water rises for about six hours and 
then slowly falls. This rising and falling of the water twice each 
day forms what is known as the tide. For a long time men were 
puzzled to explain this: it was called the breathing of the earth, and 
by certain uncivilized races it is to this day thought to be caused by 
some great animal. 

As a result of careful study, we have learned that the tides are 
caused by the moon and the sun, especially the former. Each of 
these bodies is pulling upon the earth, by the attraction of gravi¬ 
tation, as a horseshoe magnet pulls upon a piece of iron. When the 
sun and moon pull upon the earth, the ocean, being a liquid that can 
be moved, is drawn slightly out of shape. This causes two great 
swells, or waves, many hundreds of miles broad, to pass around the 
earth, following the moon. When these swells reach the shores, 
they cause the rise of the water known as the tide. 

Height of the Tidal Wave. — The tidal wave is only two or three 
feet high upon headlands which project into the open ocean; but it 
rises a great deal higher in many bays. There the wave is raised 
higher because the space that it occupies becomes narrower near 

262 



OCEAN MOVEMENTS 


263 


the head of the bay. In some such places, as in the Bay of Fundy, 
the tide reaches a height of forty or fifty feet. 

The height of the tide also varies from day to day, for the moon and 
sun, which combine to form it, do not always work together. At new moon 
and full moon, when the earth, moon, and sun are nearly in a straight line, 
the moon and sun pull together and make the tidal wave higher than at 
the quarter. The high range of tides at full and new moon are called 
spring tides, those at the quarters, neap tides. 

Ocean Currents 

Cause of Ocean Currents. — The winds which blow over the 
ocean, forming waves, also drive the water before them. You may 
do this in a small way by blowing on the surface of a pail of water. 
This starts a current, or drift, of surface water in the direction that 
the air is moving. Where the winds are steady, as in the trade 
wind belts, or moderately steady, as in the prevailing westerlies, 
there is a permanent drift of water, pushed along by the prevailing 
winds. These form the great system of ocean currents (Fig. 267) 
which have such an important influence on the earth. 

In our study of North America it was several times necessary to 
refer to the Gulf Stream and the Labrador Current. We will now 
study the currents on each side of our continent more fully. 

The North Atlantic Eddy. —In the eastern part of the Atlantic, 
where the trade winds blow, the surface water drifts slowly in the 
direction of the trade winds ; that is, toward the belt of calms 
(Fig. 249). It then drifts westward, as a great equatorial drift , 
until the easternmost extremity of South America interferes with its 
course. There the drift of water is divided, a part being turned 
southward, while the greater portion proceeds northwestward. 

The part that flows northward is deflected toward the right 
by the effect of rotation, as the winds are (p. 246); and the part 
that flows into the South Atlantic is turned to the left, also by the 
effect of rotation. Therefore the northern drift, instead of coming 
near to the mainland of North America, keeps turning to the right, 
crossing the Atlantic to Europe. It then passes southward, and 
finally returns to the trade wind belt where it started, having made 
a complete circuit. (Figs. 264 and 267.) 

Coming from the equatorial region, this water is warm, and in it live 
countless millions of animals and floating plants. Among the latter, one 
of the most abundant is a seaweed, called Sargassum , which is thrown into 


264 


GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 


the middle of this great eddy. There it has collected until it now forms 
a “ grassy ” or “ Sargasso ” sea , hundreds of square miles in extent. Since 
the “ Sargasso ” Sea lies directly between Spain and the West Indies, 
Columbus was obliged to cross it on his first voyage of discovery ; and his 
sailors, upon entering it, were much alarmed lest they might run aground, 
or become so entangled in the weed that they could not escape. 

The Gulf Stream. — A portion of the drift of water which moves 
northward along the northern coast of South America enters the 
Caribbean Sea and then passes into the Gulf of Mexico. This is a 
broad, deep, gently-flowing current; and it is so nearly surrounded 



Fig. 2(1-4. 


A diagram to show the currents of the North Atlantic. In order to illustrate the currents 
clearly it has seemed necessary to make them as if they were sharply bounded, like a 
river in its channel. As a matter of fact, however, the boundaries of these great currents 
and drifts are so indefinite that, in crossing them, one would not be able to detect the 
boundaries even by using the greatest care. 


by the warm tropical lands that it grows even warmer than when 
it entered the Caribbean. After swirling round the Gulf of Mexico, 
it escapes between Cuba and Florida, after which it is known as the 
G-ulf Stream (Fig. 264), because it comes from the Gulf of Mexico. 
Being forced to pass out through so narrow an opening, its rate of 

movement is much increased — even to four or five miles per hour_ 

as water in a hose is made to increase its speed by passing through 




















OCEAN MOVEMENTS 


265 


the nozzle. Measure the distance from Key West to Havana 
(Fig. 163). 

Being turned to the right by the effect of the earth’s rotation, 
the Gulf Stream soon leaves the American coast and flows north¬ 
eastward toward northern Europe. It broadens rapidly and joins 
forces with the western part of the great Atlantic eddy. In crossing 

the Atlantic, the drift is pushed along 
by the prevailing westerlies, so that it 
reaches the shores of northern 
Europe, and even enters the 
Arctic Ocean. Some idea of 
its volume may be gained from 
the fact that it carries many 
times as much water as all 
the rivers of the world. 
The Labrador Cur¬ 
rent. — After being 
cooled, some of this 
water settles to the 
bottom and finds its 

wav back to the tor- 
%/ 

rid zone in the slow 
drift of cold water 
which is forever 
moving along the 
ocean bottom from 
the frigid zone to¬ 
ward the equator. But much of it returns at the surface, for there is 
a cold surface current, called the Labrador current , passing south¬ 
ward along our northeastern coast (Figs. 264, 265, and 267). 

The Labrador current flows down from among the islands of 
North America, past the coast of Labrador, Newfoundland, Nova 
Scotia, and New England as far as Cape Cod. Like all ocean cur¬ 
rents in the northern hemisphere, it is turned toward the right, that 
is, since it flows southward, toward the west. 1 his causes it to 
follow our coast very closely, keeping nearer our shore than the 
Gulf Stream does. 

Since there are two currents near together, a cold one from the north, 
and a warm one from the south, a vessel sailing from Boston to England 
must cross both. During winter storms a ship often becomes covered 



Fig. 205. 

Ati Arctic whaling steamer imprisoned, off the coast of Baffin 
Land, in the floe ice which is being carried southward in 
the Labrador current. 






266 


GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 


with snow and ice while in the cold Labrador current, but loses this coat¬ 
ing soon after entering the Gulf Stream. 

Where the cold and warm currents come near together, a dense fog 
is produced. You can doubtless explain why that is so (see Primary Book, 
p. 77). Sailors who cross the Atlantic have learned to expect heavy fogs 
as they pass near the coast of Nova Scotia and Newfoundland, which is 
one of the foggiest regions in the world. 

The Currents in the North Pacific Ocean. — In the Pacific Ocean, 
as in the Atlantic (Pig. 267), the water drifts westward in the belt 
of calms ; then a broad, warm current swings to the right past 
Japan, crossing the ocean toward Alaska, as the Gulf Stream crosses 
the Atlantic toward Europe. This is called the Japanese current. 
Continuing to turn to the right, this great ocean drift passes south¬ 
ward to complete the vast eddy. 

A small branch of the current turns northward along the Alaskan 
coast. There is also a cold current between the Japanese current and the 
coast of Asia, corresponding to the Labrador current in the Atlantic. 

We see from what has been said, that, although the Gulf Stream 
flows past the Southern States, the northeastern coasts of North 
America and of Asia are bathed by ocean currents from the cold north. 
On the other hand, the northwestern coasts of Europe and North 
America are approached by warm drifts of water from the south. 

Eddies of the Southern Oceans.—In the South Pacific, South 
Atlantic, and Indian oceans, the same causes have produced eddies 
similar to that of the North Pacific ; but here the earth’s rotation 
deflects the winds to the left, as we know, and the waters are moved 
in the same -direction. Some of the water of these eddies joins 
the broad West Wind Drift of the distant southern ocean ; but 
much of it turns northward until it once more reaches the trade 
wind belt, thus completing the eddies (Fig. 267). 

Effects of Ocean Currents in North America: Review. — The cold 
Labrador current greatly affects the temperature upon the land, for 
winds blowing over it carry the chill far inland. This is one of' the 
reasons why the east winds of New England are so cool, and why 
the New England coast is such an agreeable summer resort. 

Since the Labrador current flows as far south as Cape Cod, the water 
north of this promontory must be cooler than that south of it. As the 
cold current leaves the Arctic region, it bears with it much sea ice which 
has been frozen during the preceding winters (Pig. 265), and also gigantic 
icebergs which have broken off from the Greenland glacier. It is upon 


O CEA N MO VEMENTS 


267 

this drifting ice that the polar bear spends much of his time hunting for 
seals, which live in great numbers in the ice-covered waters (Fig. 266). 

The icebergs may be carried southward one or two thousand miles 
before the air and water melt them away (see limit of icebergs on Fig. 
267). Indeed, some icebergs float even as far south as the paths followed 
by vessels which cross the Atlantic. Since many bergs are larger than 
the greatest building in the world, collision with one means shipwreck; 
therefore sailors need to use great caution, especially when the ship is in 
the fog. 

The cyclonic winds from the Gulf Stream greatly temper the 
climate of eastern United States, while at the same time they bring 
to us much vapor gathered from over these warm waters. 

The warm currents of the Pacific Ocean render the southern part 
of Alaska far warmer than southern Labrador, which is farther 



Fig. 2M. 

Polar bear and seal on the floe ice of the Labrador current. 

south; and the prevailing westerlies bring an abundance of vapor 
to the Pacific coast all the way from California to Alaska. Where 
these winds blow, the winters are mild and the rain heavy ; but the 
summers are cool and pleasant because the ocean water, though 
warm, does not become greatly heated. Notice on a globe that the 
state of Washington, with its pleasant climate, is about the same dis¬ 
tance from the equator as the bleak island of Newfoundland, the 
shores of which are bathed by the cold Labrador current. 











268 


GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 


Effects on Other Regions. — The Gulf Stream drift is of special 
benefit to the Old World. It has been estimated that its waters 
carry one half as much heat into the Arctic as reaches it from the 
diiect rays of the sun. When Nansen started on his famous journey 
toward the north pole, he entered the Arctic Ocean with this cur- 
ient. Thus, since its warm water keeps that part of the Arctic free 
fiom ice in summer, he was able to proceed much farther than lie 
otherwise could have gone. Owing to this warmth, Russia is able 
to have a harbor on the very shores of the Arctic. Name it. 
Westerly winds, warmed in passing over this drift, have made 
possible the great civilized nations of northern Europe, the father- 
land of so many Americans. 

Notice on a map how many large cities are in that part of north¬ 
ern Europe which is the same distance from the equator as desolate 
Labrador. What a striking contrast these nations present to the 
scattered savages of the latter dreary country, whose winds come 
either from the land or over cold ocean water. 

When our first settlers came from England they expected to find 
in the New World a climate like their own in the same latitude. 
They were unprepared for the severe winters which they actually 
found, and thus the first settlements on the New England and 
Canadian coasts were failures. 

Besides thus influencing so much of the earth, the Gulf Stream like 
other warm currents, has helped to form a great number of islands 
Where warm currents flow, the water is often warm enough for corals to 
live; and, since the moving water brings to them an abundance of tiny 
annuals for food, colonies of corals flourish, and their skeletons gradually 
form reefs. In this way the southern half of Florida, the Bahamas, the 
Bermudas, and many of the islands in the South Pacific, were built. 

The cold current on the northeast coast of Asia affects that region 
much as the Labrador current affects northeastern North America. 
Its winds chill the Siberian coast, and cause the harbors, like that of 
Vladivostok, to be icebound in winter. This explains why Russia 
desired to hold the Chinese harbor at Port Arthur, south of Korea 
as a terminus of the great Siberian railway,-that her commerce 
and warships might not be shut up in winter. 

Distribution of Temperature 

In general, it is true that the farther north we travel from the 
equator, the colder it grows ; but this is by no means always the 



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Fig. 267. 

A chart showing the principal ocean currents and ocean drifts of the world. Study this map carefully. Make a sketch map 
somewhat like it. Compare the direction of the currents with that of the winds in Figure 249. 





















































120* 160" 160° 120° 80° 40° O' 40' 


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270 


An isothermal chart of the world for July. 

















































































DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE 


271 


case. If the earth were made of one solid, level substance, like 
glass, the temperature would gradually decrease from the equator to 
the poles. Then all points the same distance from the equator, as 
all on the Tropic of Cancer, or all on the Arctic Circle, for instance, 
would have the same temperature. 

But we have seen that there are several causes which interfere 
with this regular decrease in temperature toward the poles. For exam¬ 
ple, (1) high mountains have a cold climate, even though in the 
torrid zone ; and, for the same reason, plateaus may be colder than 
lowlands far north of them. 

Besides that, (2) land warms and cools much more rapidly than 
water (p. 259), so that land becomes hotter in summer and colder in 
winter than the ocean. Thus, in northern Minnesota, far from the 
coast, the average temperature in January is below zero, while in 
July it is about 65° (Figs. 270 and 271). In New York City, on the 
coast, the average in January is about 25°, and in July not quite 
75°. On the west coast, in the state of Washington; where the winds 
are blowing from the ocean, the average temperature for January is 
40°, and for July 60°. 

At Key West, Florida, which is surrounded by water, the aver¬ 
age temperature in January is about 70°, and in July about 85°. 
Where the temperature changes so little, the climate is said to he 
equable. 

The winds (3) greatly influence the temperature. Where they blow 
from the ocean, they cause an equable climate, as along the coast of 
California ; but where they blow from the land, they are cool or 
cold in winter and warm in summer. This is true of the Eastern 
States, where most of the winds blow from the land, though some of 
the damp winds come from the ocean. 

Another cause (4) for different temperatures at places equally 
distant from the equator is found in the ocean currents. We have 
just seen that the Gulf Stream drift warms the air, while the Lab¬ 
rador current cools it, and thus by winds from these waters the tem¬ 
perature is affected over a very wide area. 

If, therefore, we were to draw a line across the continent, connect¬ 
ing several points that have the same average temperature during 
any one month, or during the entire year, it would need to be a very 
crooked one, with some parts reaching much farther north than 
others. Such lines tell so much about temperature in so little space 
that it is the custom to make maps to show them, as in Figures 270 


272 


GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 


and 271. Since the lines connect the places having the same tem¬ 
perature, they are called isothermal lines or isotherms. (The first 
part of the word means equal , and the latter part heat.') A map or 
chart showing the isotherms is called an isothermal chart (Figs. 270 
and 271). Trace several of the isotherms across the United States, 
and explain why they bend as they do. 

Note that on the western coast the isotherms extend northward 
and southward almost parallel to the coast, since the prevailing 
westerlies bring to the land the nearly uniform temperature of the 
Pacific. There is only about 20° difference between winter and sum¬ 
mer temperatures on the western coast of North America. But on 
the eastern coast of the United States the difference between summer 
and winter is much more marked, because, while some of the winds 
are from the ocean, still more are from the land, which is cold in 
winter and warm in summer. 

Figures 268 and 269 show similar isotherms for the world. Ob¬ 
serve how these bend toward the equator where they cross mountain 
chains. Comparing these two figures, you will notice how the win¬ 
ter isotherms of the north temperate zone bend toward the equator 
over the continents, for reasons given in (2) above. During the 
summer, on the contrary, the isotherms curve poleward. On what 
continent are these bends most striking? Why? Explain the 
effect of the Gulf Stream drift as shown in Figure 269. 

The reason is evident why the isotherms of the North Atlantic 
are close together as they leave America, but spread apart like a fan 
toward the Old World. On the American side the currents 
approach each other, one from the north bearing Arctic cold, the 
other from the warm south. This causes great temperature con¬ 
trasts between our northern and southern coasts. On the European 
side one part of the ocean drift passes northward, raising the tem¬ 
perature and bending the isotherms far northward. The remainder 
turns southward and, being somewhat cooler than the region into 
which it enters, slightly lowers the temperature and bends the 
isotherms southward. Thus the isotherms are spread apart. 

Review Questions: Waves and Tides.—(1) Of what importance are the 
waves? (2) How often does the tide rise and fall? (3) What causes it? 

Ocean Currents. — (4) Explain how winds help to produce ocean currents. 
(5) Describe the drift of tropical waters in the Atlantic. (6) Trace the drift which 
passes outside of the West Indies to the European coast. (7) Describe the Gulf 
Stream. (8) Describe the Labrador current. (9) Trace the currents in the North 
Pacific. (10) What coasts mentioned are bathed by warm currents? By cold 



273 


An Isothermal chart of the world for January. 




























































































































Fig. 270. 


is it colder in the interior than on 
Can you notice any influence of 


Isothermal chart of the United States for January. Wh 
the east coast? Why so warm on the west coast 9 
mountains ? 



274 
















DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE 



currents? (11) Tell about the eddies in the southern oceans. (12) In what 
ways is the Labrador current of importance? (13) What influence lias it in North 
America? (14) What is the influence of the Japanese current ? (15) Tell about 

the influence of the Gulf Stream on the Arctic Ocean. (10) On Europe. (17) On 
the building of coral islands. (18) What is the effect of the cold current flowing 
along the northeast coast of Asia? 

Distribution of Temperature .— (19) ^ hat about the change in temperature 
from equator to poles, if the earth were a round ball of glass ? (20) IIow is this 

change interfered with? (21) What is an isothermal line? (22) An isothermal 

chart? (23) Relate some facts about the isothermal lines for the United States. 
(24) About those for the world. 

Suggestions. — (1) If your home is upon the seacoast, find out about the 
high and low tides for several days in succession. (2) Notice the relation between 
the height and the time of high tide, on the one hand, and the changes in the 
moon, on the other. (3) Does the government spend money near your home to 
remove materials which the tidal currents have brought? (4) What course might 
a vessel take in order to be carried from Europe to America and back again by 
ocean currents? (5) What precautions do vessels take to avoid running into one 
another in dense fogs? (G) IIow do they try to avoid collisions with icebergs? 
(7) Does the presence of a warm or cold current near a country necessarily 
greatly affect the climate of that country ? (8) Locate the cold ocean currents 

of the world; the warm currents. (9) Estimate the length of the circumfer¬ 
ence of the great eddy in the North Pacific. 



Fig. 272. 

Sitka and Three Sister Mts., Alaska. Notice the Greek Church in center of picture. 


20—a G 





IV. PEOPLES 



Divisions of Mankind.—Man, like plants and animals, varies in 
different parts of the world. He is influenced by his surroundings, 
as they are, and in the course of time has developed differently in 
the various lands of the earth. Concerning the origin of the human 
race, and its divisions, people hold different views; but mankind in 
general may be divided into four great groups. 

Ethiopians . — All together there are about one and one half billion 
human beings upon the earth, or twenty times the number in the 
United States. Of these the lowest are the negroes, or Ethiopians , 
often called the black race (Eig. 275), who number about one hun¬ 
dred and seventy-five million. There are many subdivisions of this 
group, but they are all characterized by a deep brown or black skin, 
short, black, woolly hair, broad, flat noses, and prominent cheek bones. 

The home of the Ethiopians is Africa, south of the Sahara desert, 
though many have been transported to other lands as slaves, and 
have there mingled more or less with the other races. In their 
original home they are savages, or barbarians of low type. 


Fig. 273. 

Native Kanaka boys with surf boards and canoe, Hawaiian Islands. Kanaka boys and 

girls are expert swimmers. 

276 





PEOPLES 


277 


I he native Australians, the Papuans of New Guinea, the Negritos 
of the Philippines, and the blacks on some other islands in that part of 
the world resemble the negroes most closely, though differing from them 
in some important respects. They are shorter, for example; their hair 
is less woolly, their noses straighter, and their lips less thick. 



American Indians. —A second great division of the human race 
is that of the American Indians , often called the red race (pp. 30— 
32) (Tig. 275). It is the smallest of the four groups, number¬ 
ing about twenty-two millions. These people, who in some respects 
resemble the Mongolians, 
were in possession of both 
North and South America 
when Columbus discovered 
America. They are dis¬ 
tinguished by a copper-col¬ 
ored skin, prominent cheek 
bones, black eyes, and long, 
coarse, black hair (Figs. 

286 and 298). 

Mongolians. — The third 
division, the Mongolian or 
yelloiv race , numbering about 
live hundred and forty mil¬ 
lions, are typically Asiatic 
people, the greater number 
being found in Asia and the 
islands of the Pacific. 

The Mongolians, typi¬ 
cally represented by the 
Chinese and Japanese 
(Figs. 274 and 275), have 
yellowish, or in some cases 

i/ 

even a white skin, prominent cheek bones, small, oblique eyes, a small 
nose, and long, coarse, black hair. In places, as on the more remote 
islands, the Mongolians are uncivilized; but the great majority may 
be classed as civilized people, although their standard of civilization 
differs from that of the white race. 

Caucasians. — By far the largest and most civilized of the four 
divisions of mankind is the white or Caucasian race , which numbers 
about seven hundred and seventy millions. Their original home is 


Fid. 274. 
Japanese women. 



278 


GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 


not known. With the dawn of history the white peoples of Europe 
were mostly barbarians; but civilization had begun to develop in 
southern and western Asia and along the shores of the Mediter¬ 
ranean Sea. 

While for various reasons the Caucasians differ greatly in charac¬ 
teristics, two main branches are recognized: (1) the fair type (Fig. 

275) , with florid complexion, light brown, flaxen, or red hair, blue or 
gray eyes, and height above the average; (2) the dark type (Fig. 

276) , with fair skin, dark brown and black hair, often wavy or curly, 
and black eyes. In temperament both are active, enterprising, and 
imaginative, though the fair type is more stolid, the dark type more 
emotional. 

Distribution of Races. — For centuries these four great divisions 
of the human race have been changing within themselves until there 
are now many subdivisions of each group. By war and invasion 
they have encroached upon one another, and have intermixed to 
some extent. But the leaders are the whites, who, having learned 
the use of ships in exploring distant lands, have spread with a 
rapidity never seen before. Also, being more advanced than the 
others, the white races have readily conquered the weaker people 
and taken their lands from them. They now dominate the world, 
the only division that has held out against them being the Mono’o- 

lians, whose very numbers have in large measure served to protect 
them. 

Distribution of Religion. — Every race has some form of religion. 
Among savages it is little more than superstition. They are sur¬ 
rounded by nature, which they do not understand. They seek a 
cause, and, seeing none, are led to believe in spirits which they try to 
comprehend. Some they suppose to be evil, others good. Believing 
that these spirits have great influence over their lives, they try to 
win favor with them by offering sacrifices and worshiping them. 

Such religion, if it may be so called, takes many forms. Some races 
as the negroes, believe in witchcraft; and among them the witch doctor is 
sometimes more powerful than the ruler himself. To ward off evil influ¬ 
ences charms are worn, gross rites are observed, and images or objects 
called fetishes (Fig. 278), are worshiped because they are believed to 
possess magic power. Among objects worshiped are fire, the sun. the 
earthquake, and many animals. So far as the idea of God is concerned 
if these people have any conception of Him, it is of the crudest kind! 
The negroes, the Indians, the Eskimos, and even our own ancestors a few 
thousand years ago, had little more than this form of religion. 



Fia. 275. 


Races of mankind. Red, or Indian, upper left; black, or Ethiopian, upper right; white, or 
Caucasian, middle; yellow, or Mongolian, lower right; brown, or Malay (a branch of 
the yellow race), lower left. 


270 






Fig. 27<>. 

A group of Indian Brahmins, who belong to the dark type of Caucasians. 



Fig. 277. 


Diagram to show the distribution of religions. So small a map is of course 

” e ° n , y 1U 5® n . er ^ for example, it must omit many of the small 
ons wdiere Christian missionaries have made converts. 


sec- 


280 

































































PEOPLES 


281 


All people with such views as the preceding are called heathens 
(Fig. 277), and are often wrongly said to have no religion. From 
our point of view they have no true religion; but they have some¬ 
thing akin to it. 

Among the semi-civilized and civilized races there are forms of 
religion in which the conception of God is higher, and the idea of 
future reward and punishment is taught. Of these 
religions five call for special mention. 

Buddhism, followed especially in eastern Asia 
(Fig. 277), was established in India five or six 
hundred years before the time of Christ as a result 
of the work and teachings of Buddha (Fig. 279). 

But there are many differences in the religious beliefs 
and customs of the Asiatic people, and in consequence 
there are many sects. Brahminism is one of the most 
common forms of belief, being especially followed 
in India. It would be difficult to describe correctly 
the religions of the Asiatic people in a few words; 
but idolatry, or the worship of idols, is prevalent 
among them. Ancestor worship is common in China; 
and the doctrine of caste, in India, — that is, the doc¬ 
trine of class distinction. Both of these doctrines, 
which are a part of their religion, are opposed to 
progress, as we shall see. 

The Jewish religion, still followed by many, 
upholds the worship of one righteous God, as taught 
in the Old Testament. From this, two other religions 
have developed, Mohammedanism and Christianity. 

The prophet Mohammed lived about six centuries after Christ, and 
the Koran contains his teachings. Mohammedans deny the divinity 
of Christ. This religion has been spread by the sword with wonder¬ 
ful rapidity, especially among the semi-civilized people of Asia and 
Africa (Fig. 277). Many of its followers became fanatics who, be¬ 
lieving that they thus obtained future happiness, willingly died if 
they could die killing a Christian. 

The Christian religion, the common belief in America and most 
of Europe, has spread slowly, but it now numbers about 440,000,000 
followers. Its success, however, must not be measured by numbers 
alone; for Christians make up most of the really civilized people of 
the world (Fig. 277). It is no accident that this is so, for Chris- 



FlO. 278. 

A fetish from 
Africa. 


282 


GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 


tianity has been one of the chief factors in making civilization 
possible. 

Religious belief has had much to do with inventions and the 
growth of industry. The Chinese, for example, have long opposed 
new inventions because their ancestor worship cultivated undue 
reverence for past customs; also they have been unwilling to dig 

into the ground, for fear of 
disturbing the evil spirits 
that are supposed to dwell 
there. Partly for such 
reasons, our study of geog¬ 
raphy is chiefly concerned 
with Christian countries; 
for there we find the most 
varied and extensive uses 
of the earth in the service 
of man. 

Review Questions. — (1) 
Tell about the Ethiopians; their 
characteristics and distribution. 
(2) Do the same for the Amer¬ 
ican Indians. (3) Mongolians. 
(4) Caucasians. (5) Give rea¬ 
sons for the greater advance of 
the Caucasians. (6) Tell about 
the distribution of religion. 
(7) Give some facts about 
Heathens; Buddhism and 
Brahminism; Jewish religion; 
Mohammedanism; Christianity. 

Suggestions. — (1) What 
members of the divisions of 
mankind — other than whites—have you seen in your own neighborhood? 
(2) What different nationalities of whites ? (3) Find pictures illustrating human 
life in the various zones. (4) Help to make a collection of pictures for the school, 
to illustrate the various forms of shelter and clothing. Also find such pictures in 
this book. (5) Find some one - who has specimens of primitive implements, 
as Indian arrowheads, and examine them. (6) Find out something about the 
ways in which savage races ornament their clothing and person. 



Fig. 279. 

A statue, or idol, of Buddha in India. 









IGUANA 


5 LOTH 


TAPIR 


ALLIGATOR 


MANATEE 


JAGUAR 


CONS' 


CONDOR 


The M.NCo.,8ii( r PALO LLAMA 


ARMADILLO 


Fig. 280. 

Some of the animals of South America. 

283 








Fig. U. 


A Trail in the Andes Mountains of South America. 


284 









C'oloii 


Barquisimeto 


Ciudad Bui 

Z U E L A J 


OS'* A si err ^o-. 


/.Popayan 


EQUATOR 


I’aru 

(Belem) 


^Manaofi" 


lanta 


-'T’arahiba 

Pernambuco^ 

U^V^Macem' 


Palls 


\ \ \' ,w 

Llmajr^N '' 
CallacSo 

Ayatueho 


Mutto Grosso 


rinidai 


Mt.Sorata 
, . Mt.lllimani\\ I ' 

:«* BOL 1 V 1 A 

)uuro >• Cochabamba 9 _ 


Cuyaba 


Mollendo 


Matto Grosso 


Tacijfl 


Diamanfina 


Paul] 


TROPldOF CAPRICORN 


Antofagast 


AUAdlAYVi 
^s.w/ Asuncion 


SaltaSu^ 

Vel CII 


Tucumun 


*;• Bluincnuu 


ljorto Alegre 


La Serana" 


Cordoba 
ail Juan 


rande do Sul 


uziT'^lio S UP 1 

B uei\osXm^ 


Tali 

Clilllial 

iCouccpcioiii 


&jn Mu tit 


CHILOE I 


CHONOS; 
RCHIPELAGl 


ulf of Penat 


WELLINGTON I 


C A 11 I B B E A ;v] E A a 

/?*„ p t-Gall/ na cP „ vC* 

- r Or. \ s' \v, S'‘ 2 _ 


®> BARBADOS 
(Tv tit. Ur.) 


TRINIDAD, 

[To Kit, Ur,) 
Dl'lta of the 
Orinoco 1L 


SOUTH AMERICA 

Scale of Miles 


cVo" 11 


G c 

niifn^ii 1 'y* x __ 

l'TCll^~'>vCayenne 
FJtE.NCIl 


Capitals of Countries: 0 Other Cities: • 
Railroads:-projected Railroads:- 


G ii ay! 

Gulf o A 
G uuyuqui. 


Mouths of the 
A mazou R. 


I Maraiihao 


■Wto 


Montevideo 

A l 


Bah a Blanca 


a OulJ 


0 r St.tie.rge Buy 

5^0-^ C. Blanco 


Strait of 
Marietta 


.Cenra 


illlill 


;a tripos 
'C. Frio 

Rio tie, .Janeiro - 

Santos , q 


Aconcagua 
juan fernamaez r, "N alpuraiso 
( T u ci,iu)o\ o Sautingj 


30 


.’oinparutlve Area 


4o,vM5 Square Miles 
1 .1. ro»m iN-«siio.,N.r. 


Fig. 281 . 

Map Questions. — (1) In what zones 
does South America lie? (2) What would 
j^you expect the climate to he in the north¬ 
ern part ? In the central part ? In the 
southern part? (3) During what months 
does winter come in the extreme south? 

(4) What large rivers drain the continent*. 

(5) Do you find any lakes? ((>) To what 
extent is the coast line irregular? (7 
Draw an outline map and locate upoi 
it the mountains and rivers. Add the 
boundary lines of the principal countries 
(8) Are there many islands? "Where are 
most of them? (9) Find Cape Horn. It is 

| south of what island? What strait sepa 

rates this island from the mainland 
H ' (10) Which country has most railways? 

What does this indicate about the people 
(11) In what zoiwris that country? How 
may the climate have inllueneed the build 

80 Longitude 70 West from CO Greenwich railway s ? __ 


TIERPA i 
.D£L EUEGO 

t^Cape Horn 












































































Fig. 282. 

Relief map of South America. In what portion are the highlands? Which are highest? 

Locate the lowlands. 














Part 


SOUTH AMERICA 


-oO^Oo 


Physiography. — North and South America resemble each other 
in several respects. The former is triangular in shape and has its 
main highland masses on the two sides. What are their names ? 



Fig. 


283. 


Chimborazo, Ecuador, 20,500 feet high ; so high that, though under the equator, it is snow- 

covered. 


The western mountains are the younger and loftier, and they have 
many volcanic cones. They occupy a great breadth of country, 
the westernmost, or Coast Ranges, rising from the very shores of the 
Pacific. Retween the extensive highlands on the two sides of the 
continent are low plains stretching from the Gulf of Mexico to the 
Arctic Ocean. 

South America is likewise triangular in shape, broad at the north 
and tapering toward the south, and its principal highlands are on 

285 










286 


SOUTH AMERICA 


the two sides (Fig. 282). Those on the west, the Andes (Fig. 283), 
foim one of the loftiest mountain systems in the world, and between 
the ranges are included deep valleys and lofty plateaus. Through¬ 
out the entire length of the continent these mountains, rising from 
the veiy seacoast, extend inland fora distance of many miles. Many 
of the highest peaks are volcanic cones, one of them, Aconcagua, in 
Chile, reaching an elevation of nearly twenty-three thousand feet. 

On the eastern side of South America the most extensive high¬ 
lands are those in eastern Brazil (Fig. 282). This region, like New 
England, consists of ancient rocks, rising in the form of high hills 
and low mountains. The highest point is a little over ten thousand 
feet. the Guiana highland (Fig. 282), between the Amazon and 
Orinoco rivers, resembles the upland of Brazil and may be consid¬ 
ered a part of it, although separated from it by the Amazon lowland, 
the remainder of the continent is lowland (Fig. 282) and mainly a 
vast plain extending from southern Argentina to the Caribbean Sea. 

. South America, as in North America, the growth of mountains has 
raised the two sides of the continent and left a depression into which the 
sea once entered. But waste from the mountains, washed down by rain 
and rivers, has filled this depression and built the broad plains that are 
now there. By uplift these plains have been elevated to form dryland. 

In two important respects North and South America are unlike in 
physiography. In the first place, their large rivers flow in different 
directions. Describe from memory the three or four principal river 
systems of North America. (Or see Fig. 42.) Make a sketch of 
the three largest rivers of South America. One of these is the 
largest in the world. Which is it? Which one most nearly cor¬ 
responds to the Mississippi in position and direction of flow? - 

A second difference between the two continents is in regard to 
their coast lines. It will be remembered that much of the North 
American coast has been made irregular by the sinking of the land. 
Much of the South American coast, on the other hand, has been 
rising. In the former case, many fine harbors were formed; in the 
latter, the coast line is made straight because the level sea bottom is 
being raised. Notice how very regular is most of the western coast 
of South America. It is the longest regular coast line in the 
world; for a distance of three thousand miles there is a general 
absence of good natural harbors. What effect must this have upon 
the development of the continent ? 


CLIMATE 


287 


Climate. — A large portion of South America lies in the tropical 
zone and consequently has a hot climate. Where does the Tropic 
of Capricorn cross the continent ? The portion south of this tropic 
reaches into the south temperate zone, and its climate, therefore, 
resembles that of the United States. What countries of South 
America are partly or wholly in the temperate zone ? During what 
months do they have summer ? What effect on temperature are 
their north winds likely to have ? 

The winds, together with the highlands, are the key to the rain¬ 
fall. On the map (Fig. 247) it is seen that the belt of calms extends 
across the continent in the neighborhood of the equator. North of 



Fig. 284. 

A view on the arid plateau of Bolivia — a train of alpacas is crossing here. 


this belt the northeast trade winds blow Fig. (247), while south of 
it is the zone of southeast trade winds. Still farther south are the 
horse latitudes, and then come the prevailing westerlies (Fig. 249), 
which blow across the southern end of the continent. 

We may therefore expect heavy rainfall in the vicinity of the 
equator (Fig. 251), where the air is constantly rising. The north¬ 
ern coast must also receive abundant rains because the trade winds 
come from the ocean and are forced to rise in passing over the 
slopes. The highlands in eastern Brazil must likewise be well 
watered by the vapor-laden southeast trades (Fig. 251). Of course, 
these winds lose much of their moisture in traveling across the con¬ 
tinent, but on approaching the Andes they are forced to a still 





288 


SOUTH AMERICA 


greater height ; accordingly, the eastern side of these ranges is wet 
by frequent rains. 

South of the belt of calms, both in the trade wind and horse 
latitude belts, the western slopes and the valleys of the Andes 
(Hg. 251) are far too arid for agriculture without irrigation. In 
this region large areas are veritable deserts. This arid condition 
is due to the influence of the mountains, which interfere with the 
trade winds so that the prevailing winds are from the south, and 
therefore parallel to the coast (Fig. 249). Since these winds are 
blowing toward the equator, and therefore becoming steadily warmer, 
they do not give up their moisture and form rain. Thus there are 
deserts on the very coast. 

Farther south the influence of the prevailing westerlies is felt. 
In this part of the continent, therefore, it is the western side that 
receives the rain, while the eastern part is dry (Fig. 250). In ris¬ 
ing over the land these winds cause abundant rainfall in southern 
Chile; but, being robbed of their vapor as they cross the mountains, 
they descend as dry winds upon the plains of Patagonia. With 
what portion of the United States may the climate of this region be 
compared ? 

1 rom the above we see that while most of South America is well 
supplied with rain, two extensive areas on opposite sides of the 
Andes are arid. Locate them (Fig. 250). 


Ihe heavy lain in the tropical section of the continent supplies the 
three great rivers with an abundance of water, and encourages a rank 
growth of tropical vegetation. But each year, as the season changes, the 
belts of rainfall migrate northward and southward (Figs. 255 and 256). 
Therefore on each side of the equator is a belt where the rainfall varies 
with the season, being dry at one time of year and well watered in the 
opposite season. In the rainy season the rivers are flooded, and vegeta¬ 
tion grows profusely; but with the dry season the streams shrink incize, 
and the plains become dry and parched. It is because of this dry period 
that there are open savannas, or grassy plains, both north and south of the 
equatorial forest. They are called llanos in the Orinoco valley, campos in 
Brazil, and pampas in Argentina. Here trees cannot survive the drought; 
but grass is able to mature its seeds during the rainy season, then dies 
down to the ground and remains dormant until the next period of rains. 


Plant and Animal Life. In the warm, rainy belt the great 
humidity and high temperature are favorable to an extraordinary 
growth of plant life. So dense are the vast jungles of the Amazon 


PLANT AND ANIMAL LIFE 


289 

that travel through them is almost impossible (p. 294) ; in fact, 
much of this forest wilderness has never been explored. 

In the desert of the west coast, on the other hand, plant life is very 
scanty (Fig. 284). There are some parts, for instance the desert of 
Atacama in northern Chile, where there is almost no life of any kind. 

In those sections where the climate is cool and the rainfall moder¬ 
ate, as on the mountain slopes and in the south temperate zone, the 
land is forest-covered. The extreme southern part of the continent 
has a climate so cold that the plants become dwarfed, as in the case 
near the tree line in northern Canada. 

In the tropical forest there is a great variety of tree-dwelling animals, 
among which are many insects and beautiful birds. Among the larger 
animals may be mentioned the fruit-eating monkey, the fierce jaguar 
(Fig. 280), which preys upon other animals, and the sloth (Fig. 280), a 



Fig. 285. 

Tropical vegetation in the damp lowlands of Ecuador, where there are heavy equatorial 
rains. The boats are dugouts, that is, logs hollowed out in boat form by natives. 


creature which sleeps suspended, back downward, from the branches of 
the trees. There are also many reptiles, including serpents and the iguana 
(Ffg. 280), a tree lizard often several feet in length. Some of the serpents 
are small and poisonous; others, like the boa constrictor (fig. 280), are 
large and powerful enough to crush a deer in their coils. The boa, coiled 
among the trees awaiting its prey, resembles a vine. 

The beautiful butterflies and ants are most noticeable among the 
insects. Among the most interesting insects are the termites,commonly 




290 


SOUTH AMERICA 


called white ants, which live in colonies, and build houses of earth. With 
so many insects there are naturally numerous species of insect eaters. 
One of the most interesting of these is the ant-eater (Fig. 280). Its 
long claws are adapted to digging the ants from their earthy or woody 
dwelling places, while its sharp-pointed snout and long tongue aid it in 
finding and devouring its food. 

Besides these animals there is the tapir (Fig. 280), five or six feet 
in length, which wanders about at night, feeding along the watercourses; 
and the armadillo (Fig. 280), a burrowing animal protected by an armor. 
When attacked by an enemy, the armadillo rolls itself into a ball, inclos¬ 
ing its soft under parts. In the river waters and swamps are fishes, 
turtles, and alligators (Fig. 280). The turtle eggs and fish are among the 
principal food for the forest Indians. Here also is found the manatee 
(Fig. 280), or sea cow, a mammal that has become adapted to life in the 
water. It lives both in fresh and salt water, and ascends the Amazon 
even as far as Ecuador.. 

On the open plains, herds of deer roam about, and also the rhea (Fig. 
280), — often called the American ostrich, —- one of the few large running 
birds. It lives on the open plains, as in Patagonia, where are also found 
herds of guanaco, a kind of wild llama. 



Among the crags and peaks of the Andes dwells the condor (Fig. 280), 
the largest of the flying birds — so large that it kills and carries off small 
deer. In the mountain valleys live the llama (Fig. 280), and its allies, the 

vicuna and alpaca, both wild and do¬ 
mesticated (Figs. 284 and 301). Like 
other mountain dwellers the llama is 
sure-footed on the rocks, and is thus 
of great use as a beast of burden ; and 
the cold climate causes it to have a 
thick coat of wool which is of value to 
man. Because of its usefulness the 
llama is sometimes called the Ameri¬ 
can camel. 


The People.—When South Amer¬ 
ica was discovered by Columbus, it 
was inhabited solely by red men. 
Of these many were typical sav¬ 
ages; and even at the present daj 
some of the forest Indians are sav¬ 
ages, living solely upon fish, game, 
and the abundant fruits. It is unsafe for white men to go among them, 
and indeed there are forest tribes which still practice cannibalism. 

Along the coast and some of the larger rivers the red men found 
by the early explorers were more advanced. Like most of the North 


Fig. 286. 

A cannibal girl from the tropical forest 
of Peru. 



PLANT AND ANIMAL LIFE 


291 


American Indians, they were in the lower stages of barbarism. 
In a crude way they cultivated the soil and manufactured a few 
simple implements. Many Indians in the more remote districts 
still live in this primitive way, though large numbers have mixed 
with the white settlers and adopted their customs. 

But among the Andes, especially in Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador, 
the Spanish explorers found tribes of Indians, under control of the 
Incas, who had developed far beyond their neighbors. Indeed, like 
the Pueblo and Aztec Indians of North America (p. 31), they had 



Fig. 287. 

A bridge made by the Indians. 

reached the early stages of civilization. The temperate climate 
of their mountain valley homes favored advance. And the protec¬ 
tion from the inroads of their more savage neighbors, which the 
arid country and mountain barriers offered, gave them the oppor¬ 
tunity to develop arts and to advance in other ways. 

The Spanish, encouraged by the discovery of rich deposits of 
gold and silver, seized almost all of South America except Brazil, 
which was settled by the Portuguese. They treated the aborigines 
with great cruelty, especially the Incas, whom they robbed of their 
treasures and reduced to slavery. As in North America, the Span- 

21— A G 






292 


SOUTH AMERICA 


iards intermarried freely with the Indians, so that the present inhab¬ 
itants of South America are to a large extent of mixed blood. The 
introduction of negro slaves had led to a still greater mixture of 
peoples. Therefore, while there are still pure-blooded Indians and 
negroes, and also pure-blooded white men, especially Spanish and 
Portuguese, the greater number of the South Americans are a mixture 
of two or more of these very different races. This fact is one of the 
main reasons for the unstable governments of some of the South 
American countries. 

Spain maintained her control in South America for fully three 
hundred years. But in the early part of the nineteenth century the 
colonies revolted and established themselves as independent republics, 
modeled after the United States. They were led to ficrht for their 
independence partly because of the success of our own Revolution, 
but chiefly because of oppression by the Spaniards, who treated 
their colonies merely as sources of wealth. 

Brazil also became in¬ 
dependent of Portugal, 
and, after being for a long 
time ruled by an emperor, 
established a republican 
form of government in 
1889. Of late there have 
been many immigrants 
from European countries, 
especially from Germany 
and southern Europe. 
Special inducements have 
been offered to such colo¬ 
nists, and the recent devel- 
opment in portions of 
South America, particu¬ 
larly of Argentina and 
southern Brazil, has been 
partly due to these immi¬ 
grants. 

Brazil 

Physiography and Cli¬ 
mate. — This is the largest 


















BRAZIL 


293 



country in South America. It is even larger than the United States 
without Alaska, and nearly as large as Europe. While extending 
north of the equator on one side, it extends into the south temperate 
zone on the other side. How many degrees of latitude does it 
include ? Since so large a part of Brazil is in the torrid zone and 
on the eastern slope of the continent, its climate is not only warm 
but moist. Why the latter ? 

Eastern Brazil is a highland of ancient mountains worn down 
to the condition of hills and low mountains. Numerous streams 
drain this upland in various directions. Point out some of 
these (Fig. 281). Trace the divide between those flowing into 
the Amazon and Parana and those flowing into the Atlantic. 
What is the name of the largest river emptying directly into the 
Atlantic ? 

The northern third of Brazil is mainly a vast level plain, through¬ 
out most of its extent occupied by dense forest and drained by the 
Amazon. What is the condition on the campos? Why ? (p. 288). 
The rainfall in the Ama¬ 
zon valley is so heavy 
and the slope of the 
land so gentle, that the 
Amazon and its larger 
tributaries are swollen to 
great breadth. At times 
of flood the rivers over¬ 
flow the surrounding coun¬ 
try and transform it to an 
immense swamp through 
which many branching 
channels extend. In places 
the Amazon is several miles 
in width, and resembles a 
great lake rather than a 
river. Boats are able to 
pass up the river nearly 
to the base of the Andes, 
a distance of twenty-two 
hundred miles from the 
seacoast. Some of the tributaries are also navigable. Along the 
route of navigation there are settlements, such as Manaos which is 


Fig. 289. 

Some of the Indians of tropical South America. 
Notice the nose and lip ornaments. 




294 


SOUTH AMERICA 


reached by ocean steamers; but at a distance from the river there 
is nothing but an almost unknown wilderness (Fig. 288). 

The Tropical Forest. — The Amazon forest offers a typical illustration 
of the tropical forest, where plants, encouraged by the uniformly high 
temperature and great dampness, grow luxuriantly in the rich soil. Not 
only is the rainfall heavy, but evaporation is retarded by the dense vege¬ 
tation, so that the forest is reeking with moisture. Consequently at night 
time, when the temperature falls, such heavy dews collect that the plants 
are wet by them as by a rain. 

One of the features of such a forest is the dense gloom and the silence, 
broken now and then by the crash of a falling tree, or the sorrowful notes 
of birds, or the frightful howling of monkeys, or perchance the shrill 
scream of an animal which has fallen a prey to the boa (Fig. 280). Why 
might we expect the animals in large part to be tree dwellers ? 

To one whose home is in the temperate zone the tropical forest appears 
very strange, for the woods are much the same throughout the year. There 
is no time when all the trees send forth their leaves and blossoms; nor is 
there a time when all the leaves change and fall to the ground. Some of 
the trees blossom throughout the year; others have their blossoms at 
regular seasons; thus flowers and fruit may be seen at all times of the 
year. 

Products of the Forest. Among the trees of the tropical forest are 
many useful kinds. Some produce gums, such as caoutchouc , from 
which rubber is made; or edible fruits and nuts, or valuable timber 

and dyewoods.x In fact, 
the name Brazil is derived 
from a word applied to a 
dyewood found in the 
Amazon forests. 

Many of the inhabitants 
near the rivers, who have 
partially adopted the cus¬ 
toms of civilization, make 
long journeys into the for¬ 
est to collect the products, 
both for their own use and 
for shipment down the Amazon. But the difficulties of travel, and the 
warmth and dampness of the climate, are opposed to much work. 

The Indians still cultivate the mandioca, which was one of their princi¬ 
pal sources of food when white men appeared. This plant has beneath 
the soil an enlargement of the root which in shape resembles a long sweet 



Fig. 290. 

An Indian hut on the Amazon. 






BRAZIL 


295 


potato. A dish of dry meal, or farina , made from the mandioca is commonly 
seen on Brazilian tables, and it is often stewed with beans. Mandioca bears 
much the same relation to these people that wheat bears to those who live 
in temperate climates. It is from this plant that tapioca is made. 

Rubber. I he natives are also engaged in obtaining rubber , a 
product of immense importance because of its many uses, for example, 
as a packing around the valves of machinery, and as an insulator 
around wires and cables. Name other uses of rubber. 

Coffee Raising. —The coffee tree is a native of Abyssinia in 
Africa. It was introduced into Brazil in the eighteenth century 



Fig. 291 . 


A part of the city and harbor of Rio de Janeiro. 


and has proved so successful that Brazil now produces more than 
one half of all the coffee raised in the world. Coffee is cultivated 
all the way from southern Brazil to the Amazon, and there are fully 
five hundred million coffee trees in Brazil alone (Fig. 200). 

Formerly most of the Brazilian coffee left the port of Rio de 
Janeiro, but now more than half of it is sent from Santos. Coffee is 
the principal export of Brazil, and much of it comes to the United States. 







296 


SOUTH AMERICA 


Other Industries in Brazil. — On the highlands of Brazil, where 
coffee raising is carried on, other crops are also produced, such as cot¬ 
ton, sugar, tobacco, fruit, and corn. Much cocoa is cultivated in the 
tropical section, and in the extreme south many cattle are raised. 
The rocks of the highlands have produced some valuable minerals, 
especially gold and diamonds. Indeed, at one time, the southern 
Part °f Brazil was the principal diamond-producing region in the 

world. Both coal and iron are also present, though they are not yet 
extensively mined. 

Cities. — The capital and largest city of the republic is Rio i>e 
Janeiro, a city of over eight hundred thousand people, and the 
second m size in South America. It is situated upon a fine harbor 
(tig. 291) and is surrounded by excellent farming country and 
coffee plantations. Several other Brazilian cities are seaports con¬ 
nected with the interior by short railway lines which bring the coffee 
and other products for shipment. The most important are Bahia, 
Santos, the seaport of Sao Paulo, and Pernambuco, the chief port 
for the export of sugar and cotton. Compare the size of each of 
these with some city in the United States (Tables in Appendix, 
pp.iv-viu). On the Para River, near the mouth of the Amazon' 
and connected with it by a branch of the river, is Para, from which 
most of the rubber, vanilla, and other products from the Amazon 
iorest are shipped to America and Europe. 


Argentina 

Physiography and Climate.- This is by far the most advanced 
o South American countries, and the reasons are not difficult to 
understand. In the first place, Argentina extends from just within 
t le torrid zone to the extreme southern end of South America. 

ms the country is for the most part within the temperate zone 
the climate of which favors the development of energetic ‘people.’ 

so the range of climate, from arid to rainy (Fig. 250) and from 
tropical to temperate, insures a considerable range of products. A 
second reason for rapid advancement is the fact that, while there 
are mountains in the west, the remainder of the country is largely 
one vast expanse of pampas (Fig. 292). These open, treeless plains 
inve made it easy for settlers to move about and to carry on the 
industries of farming and ranching. This is quite in contrast to the 
unfavorable conditions in the Amazon valley ; but it may be com- 


ARGENTINA 


297 


pared with the ease of settlement which the plains and prairies of 
the United States have afforded. 

Such favorable conditions have served to attract many immi¬ 
grants from Europe, and there is, therefore, a larger percentage of 
pure-blooded whites here than in other parts of South America. 
Largely for this reason the government of Argentina is decidedly 
better than that in most South American countries. 

Cattle Raising. — 1 he open plains are well adapted to ranching, and 
it is estimated that there are nearly 100,000,000 sheep and 25,000,000 
cattle in this country. Stock raising in Argentina differs in some 
respects from ranching in the United States (pp. 128 and 161). 



Fig. 292. 

On the pampas of Argentina. 

Formerly the herds roamed over the plains, feeding on government 
land, as is the custom in the United States. The government of Argen¬ 
tina, however, recognizing that ranching would he more successful if the 
cattle owners controlled large bodies of land, has been in the habit of sell¬ 
ing large tracts to the ranchmen, who after purchase fence in their land. 
In western United States, on the other hand, ranchmen cannot obtain 
large tracts of government land because of the laws which restrict its sale 
to small blocks. But some of our western land, owned by the railways, 
may be bought in large tracts, and there the custom is growing to purchase 
and fence land, introduce better stock, and care for it, as in Argentina. 

Farming. —The climate and soil in many parts of Argentina are 
favorable to agriculture. In the warm northern portion sugar cane, 





7 


SOUTH AMERICA 


298 

coffee, and tobacco are produced; in the more temperate part, where 
the rainfall is sufficient, grains and alfalfa are raised. There is also 
much fruit raising, especially grapes, from which wine and raisins 
are made. 

Wheat is the most important agricultural product, the value of 
the crop being fully $50,000,000 a year, making the Argentine plains 
one of the great wheat-producing sections of the world. The climate 
is favorable, the soil fertile, and the land level or gently rolling, as 
in Minnesota and the Dakotas. Agriculture in the extreme south 
is prohibited by the cold; but sheep raising is carried on even in 
Patagonia and on the stormy islands beyond the Straits of Magellan. 

Manufacturing and Commerce. — Besides the industries men¬ 
tioned above, there is some lumbering and mining in the mountain¬ 
ous portion. But although the words Argentina and Plata mean 
silver, their use as proper names comes from the fact that the natives 
wore silver ornaments, rather than from any abundance of the white 
metal in Argentina. 

In the large cities there is much manufacturing, largely con¬ 
nected with the raw products of the country, as, for instance, 
dairying, woolen mills, flour, sugar, wine, and cotton manufactur- 
ing, the preparation of hides, etc. Nevertheless, a large part of the 
raw products is sent abroad, particularly wool, sheepskins, hides, 
wheat, corn, and meat. On the other hand, machinery, cloth, and 
other manufactured articles must be imported. 

With such a development of the resources it is natural that 
there should be means of ready transportation. The broad Parana 
Pivei, which empties into the Plata estuary, offers extensive water 
connection with the interior; and railways ramify the well-settled 
portions of the country, connecting all the important cities. In 
fact, because of the superior development of Argentina, there are 
more railways here than in any other South American country. In 
resources, industrial development, government, and educational sys¬ 
tem Argentina, of all the South American countries, bears the closest 
resemblance to the United States. 

Cities. — By far the most important city is Buenos Aires, which 
is the largest city in South America, and one of the great cities 
of the world. There is a certain resemblance between Buenos 
Anes and New York, the metropolis of North America. 

Each is situated on a good harbor on an estuary, and each has water 
connection with a very productive interior having a temperate climate. 


URUGUAY AND PARAGUAY 


299 


Moreover, from various parts of the interior, in each case, railway lines 
converge toward the seaport, while steamship lines extend to all quarters 
of the globe. New York, however, is a gateway to a much larger and 
more varied country, and one of greater resources. In addition, New 
York has been developed for a longer time. Consequently it is much 
larger than Buenos Aires. 

Buenos Aires is a busy and rapidly growing city with much manufac¬ 
turing, especially flour milling, brewing, and the canning and preserving 
of meat. It also has an extensive commerce. Just below the citv, on the 
Plata estuary, is the seaport of La Plata ; and upstream, on the Parana, 
is the rapidly growing city of Bosario, which is an important railway 
center as well as a river port. In the interior are a number of towns and 
cities, among which the railway center Cordoba is the largest. 

Uruguay and Paraguay 

Uruguay. —Like so much of Argentina, this is a region of plains, 
well watered and excellently adapted to agriculture. Naturally, 
therefore, cattle and sheep raising are important industries. But 



Fig. 293. 

Ranch houses on the plains of Uruguay. 


although the climate and soil are favorable to the same crops that 
thrive in northern Argentina, there has been little progress in agri¬ 
culture. Indeed, quite in contrast to its neighbor Argentina, this 
country is but slightly developed. The government is very bad 
indeed, for a few men control the army and make and unmake presi¬ 
dents almost at will. 

The principal products of Uruguay are those connected with 
cattle and sheep ; namely, dried beef, corned beef, ox tongues, hides, 
tallow, horns, sheepskins, and wool. The famous Liebig extract of 
beef is made in this country. The company disposes of more than 




300 


SOUTH AMERICA 


one thousand cattle a day during the summer months, and exports 
tongues, canned meats, beef extracts, and other products, to the 
value of 815,000,000 a year. 

Ihe capital and largest city is the seaport of Montevideo, situ¬ 
ated at one end of a semicircular bay on the Plata estuary. 

Paraguay. — Like Bolivia this little country is without a sea- 
coast, though it has access to the sea by way of the Parana River. 
It is a region of hills and plains covered with forests in part, but 
with many tracts of pasture land upon which large herds of cattle 
feed. Ihe climate is hot and dry, with most of the hot winds from 
the north. lortunately most of the rain falls during the hot sum¬ 
mer, when the ocean winds blow toward the heated land. 

Ihe agricultural products are those of the warm temperate and 
tropical zones, including tobacco, rice, sugar cane, and oranges, 
while from the forests rubber, dyewoods, and valuable timber are 
obtained. There is but one railway, which connects the capital, 
Asuncion, with Montevideo on the sea. 

A peculiar product, and the principal export of this country, is yerba 
maH, or Paraguay tea. Although not used as extensively as our tea, 
which comes mainly from China and Japan, it is very popular in South 
America, where its use was learned from the red men. 


The Guianas and Venezuela 

The Guianas. — North of Brazil are three small countries, the 
only portions of the South American continent now under control 
of European nations. They belong to Great Britain, Holland, and 
Iiance, respectively, and are known as British Guiana , French 
Guiana, and Dutch Guiana , or Surinam. Find the capital of each. 
Gold is obtained in each of the Guianas, although the development 
in this direction has gone little farther than the washing of gravels. 

In these small countries a large part of the surface is still a forest 

wilderness inhabited chiefly by Indians who have little contact with 

white men. This tropical forest, like that of the Amazon, which 

it closely resembles, supplies rubber and valuable timber; but its 

resources are only slightly developed. Near the coast, however, 

there is a strip of cultivated land from which is obtained sugar cane! 

bananas, cotton, and a few other products. Of late, especially in 

Dutch Guiana, attention has been turned to the production of cocoa 
and coffee. 


THE GUI AN AS AND VENEZUELA 


301 


The Guianas are so slightly developed that there is but one 
short railway, and in most sections there are almost no roads. There 
are practically no exports except sugar, molasses, and rum — all 
made from sugar cane, b lour, clothing, and other manufactured 
articles are imported. 

Venezuela. 1 —This country includes one of the spurs of the 
Andes and also a portion of the Guiana highland. But a large 
part of V enezuela is occupied by the broad plains of the Orinoco 
valley. Some of these plains, the treeless llanos (p. 288), are the 
seat of extensive cattle raising, as in the case of the pampas of 
Argentina. In parts of Venezuela are vast forests which produce 
valuable dyewoods and rubber. Among the mountains also are 
found rich mineral deposits, especially gold. 



Fig. 21)4. 

A cocoanut grove on the northern coast of South America. 

There is some agriculture. Hardy crops, like potatoes, beans, 
and barley, are raised even at altitudes of eight thousand feet; but 
below five thousand feet are found such semi-tropical and tropical 
products as sugar cane, bananas, cocoa, and coffee. The latter is 
the chief export; in fact, Venezuela is one of the leading coffee- 
producing sections of South America. 

The capital, Caracas, live or six miles from the sea, is situated 
upon a highland over three thousand feet above sea level. It is 
connected with its ports by a short railway line which winds about 
in its descent to the sea. 

1 This name, which means “little Venice,” was applied to the country because, 
when first visited in 1490, white men found an Indian village built on piles or posts in 
the water along the shores of Lake Maracaibo. 










302 


SOUTH AMERICA 


Id 1312 Caracas was visited by one of the most terrible earthquakes 
ever recorded. It being Ascension Day, a great part of the population was 
at church. The first shock caused the bell to toll, but after all danger 
was thought past, there came a terrible subterranean noise, resembling the 
lolling of thunder, but louder and longer. Then came a shaking of the 
earth so tremendous that churches and houses were overthrown and the 
inhabitants buried beneath their ruins. On that day fully twelve thousand 
persons perished. People were told that it was sent as a punishment for 
revolting from the rule of Spain. 

Tropical Andean Countries 

Points of Resemblance. — These countries, Colombia, Ecuador, 
1 eru, and Bolivia, are all crossed by the lofty Andes and are there- 



Fig. 295. 

Building houses in a clearing in the forest of Peru on the eastern side of the Andes. 

fore mountainous. Each of them extends eastward beyond the 
mountains, to the plains of the upper Amazon and Orinoco valleys. 
In Colombia these plains include a portion of the llanos. The head 
waters of the Amazon and its tributaries in the region of the equator 






TIi O PICA L A N BE A N CO UN TRIES 


303 


have never been fully explored, and the exact boundaries of Colombia, 
Ecuador, and Peru have never been officially determined by treaty. 
For this reason maps and geographies differ widely in the matter. 

There is, of course, great variety of climate in this section. 
Tropical heat prevails throughout the lowlands (Fig. 285); but the 
heavy rainfall near the equator contrasts strikingly with the arid 
conditions of southern Peru and northern Chile, which lie in the 
belt of southeast trades (p. 287). 

The elevation due to mountains and plateaus also causes differences 
in climate. This may be illustrated by the vegetation. Up to an alti¬ 
tude of three thousand to four thousand feet, bananas, sugar cane, cocoa, 
and other plants of hot climates flourish. Above this, to an elevation 
of six or seven thousand feet, the cooler climate permits the growth of 
tobacco, corn, and coffee. From this height up to about ten thousand 
feet, wheat and our northern vegetables and fruits do well; but above ten 
thousand feet the bleak mountain peaks are too cold for farming. There 
is therefore a great variety of farm products in western South America. 

The fact that this section is so mountainous furnishes an expla¬ 
nation of its importance in the production of minerals. Both gold 
and silver ores, and other minerals as well, are found from the 
northern to the southern limit of the Andes, and this is therefore 
one of the great mineral-producing regions of the world. It was 
the abundance of precious metals which attracted the Spanish to the 
continent. 

Goaded by the Spanish misgovernment, these colonies revolted 
in the early part of the last century and established independent 
republics. But the nature of the population was such that real 
republican government was impossible. In each of the countries 
ambitious leaders, usually generals in the army, have again and 
again overturned the government. This has seriously interfered 
with the development of industry and commerce; for not only have 
lives and property been lost, but a feeling of uncertainty has been 
introduced which has prevented settlers from coming, and capitalists 
from investing money for the development of the resources. 

None of the capitals of the Andean countries are on the coast, and 
several are in the interior at a considerable elevation above sea level. In 
choosing such sites the Spaniards have had the example set them both by 
their Spanish ancestors and by the Incas; for Cuzco, the capital of the 
Incas, and Madrid, the Spanish capital, are both at a considerable eleva- 


304 


SOUTH AMERICA 


lion above sea level and many miles from the coast. The principal 
objects in the selection of these sites are to be near the mines, to secure 
a cooler and more healthful climate, and to obtain protection from attack 
by sea. 

Doubtless another reason why these cities are not on the coast is the 
absence of good harbors. Throughout almost its entire extent, except 
in the cold southern portion of Chile, the coast is wonderfully straight. 
Why ? (p. 286). Even in the present century the coast has risen several 
feet in a part of Peru and Chile. This uplift occurred during earthquake 
shocks, and it was, without question, the slipping of the rocks that 
caused the shocks. 

Panama. — I his small republic occupying the extreme north¬ 
western part of South America and the Isthmus of Panama is of 

especial importance to us, 
since the great Panama ship 
canal is being constructed 
across the narrowest part 
of the Isthmus. Of what 
advantage will such a 
canal be to the United 
States? What two cities 
are situated at the ends of 
this canal route ? A rail¬ 
way connects these two 
cities, and many goods are 
carried over it; for vessels 
approach from one side 
and unload and transfer their cargoes to the other ocean, where 

other vessels await. Thus the long voyage around South America 
may be saved. 

Colombia. This country, named after Columbus, has seacoast 
on both oceans. The western part is very mountainous. Here 
there is much mineral wealth, gold and silver being of most impor¬ 
tance, though emeralds of excellent grade are also obtained. In the 
eastern portion of the country, on the other hand, are treeless llanos 
on which large numbers of cattle are raised, as in Venezuela. 
Coffee is the principal agricultural product and the chief export ; 
but sugar cane, tobacco, and cocoa are also produced. On the 

mountain slopes the grains, fruits, and vegetables of temperate 
climates are grown. 

Bogota, the capital and largest city, is situated far in the 






ECUA BOR 


305 


interior and at an elevation of about a mile and a half above sea 
level. It lias an agreeable climate, even though within the tropics. 

Ecuador. \\ hy should this name, the Spanish for equator, be 
applied to this country ? In the Andes of Ecuador there are 
many volcanoes, including Cotopaxi, one of the loftiest active 
volcanoes in the world, and Chimborazo, which is still higher but 
no longer active. 

Naturally, because of its position, this country has a hot, damp 
climate near sea level, but is much more temperate on the moun- 



Fig. 2<)7. 

A native house in Ecuador. Can you suggest reasons for building it on posts rather 

than on the ground ? 


tain slopes. The principal occupations are cattle raising and farm¬ 
ing. The chief farm products are wheat and barley on the highlands, 
and coffee, sugar cane, and cocoa on the warm lowlands. The last 
named is the most important product of Ecuador, and fully one fifth 
of all the cocoa produced in the world comes from that country. 

Another product of Ecuador, and of some other South American 
countries, is sarsaparilla. The rubber industry is also well developed; 
and, now that the accessible supply from wild trees is becoming exhausted, 
attention is being given to the planting of rubber trees. 

Even in the cities there is practically no manufacturing. One of the 






306 


SOUTH AMERICA 


reasons for this is the almost total absence of roads, making the transporta¬ 
tion of heavy machinery very difficult. This fact also interferes greatly 
with mining operations among the mountains. Therefore, although there 
is much gold and silver, mining is as yet slightly developed. 

Quito, the capital and largest city of Ecuador, is situated among 
the mountains of the interior at an elevation of about nine thousand 

feet. Next in size is the seaport Guayaquil, 
the westernmost of the large cities of South 
America. It is in W. Long. 80°. Does it lie 
to the east or west of Washington? 

Peru. — The broad, forest-covered plains on 
the eastern side of the rugged Andes are 
drained by some of the larger headwaters of 
the Amazon, and thus Peru is provided with 
water communication to the Atlantic. While 
much of this dense tropical forest is an almost 
unexplored wilderness, the mountain valleys are 
settled mainly by the descendants of the Incas. 

In Peru there are not only variations in climate 
due to altitude, as in Ecuador and Colombia, but 
also great differences in rainfall. The heavy fall of 
rain on the eastern side of the Andes offers a 
sti iking contrast to the arid and even desert climate 
along their western slopes (Fig. 250). State the 
cause of this aridity once more (p. 288). So little 
ram falls in southwestern Peru that in some parts, even close by the sea 
there is an average of but one shower in seven years. 

Peru was one of the most valuable sources of gold and silver for 
the Spanish conquerors. The Incas who dwelt there had accu¬ 
mulated gold for ornament, and this the Spaniards seized. Then 
opening mines, they forced the Indians to work as slaves. Since 
that time vast quantities of gold and silver have been obtained in 

that country, and valuable deposits of gold, petroleum, and copper 
have also been found. 

There is much agriculture in Peru, the principal crops being corn 
wheat, and potatoes among the mountains, and sugar cane, cotton 
tobacco, and coffee in the lower, warmer sections. Even in the arid 
portion there is some farming ; for, as in southern California, the 
rains and snows of the mountains supply water for irrigation in the 



Fig. 298. 

A Peruvian Indian. 







PERU 


307 


valleys and on the narrow coastal plains. Thus, even in the desert, 
there are some gardens, vineyards, and fields of cotton and sugar 
cane. 


Cinchona , or Peruvian bark, from which the valuable medicine quinine 
is obtained, was known to the Incas and is still an important Peruvian 
product. It is obtained from an evergreen tree whose leaves resemble 
those of the laurel. 



Fig. 299. 


A view of Lima, the capital of Peru. 


Before the year 1879 Peru was making rapid progress ; but 
by a war with Chile at that time the nation became almost 
paralyzed. Although there is some manufacturing, especially 
connected with sugar production, most manufactured articles must 
be imported. 

Lima, the capital (Fig. 299), founded by the Spanish conquer¬ 
ors in 1535, is situated at the base of the Andes. Callao, the sea¬ 
port of Lima, is about seven miles from the capital. Its harbor is 
but little more than an open roadstead partially protected by an 
island on the southwest side. However, since the winds and ocean 
swells are from the south, while the coast is practically never visited 

by storms, this slight protection is sufficient. 

22—a o 














308 


SOUTH AMERICA 


Arequipa, at an elevation of seven thousand feet, is separated from 
the sea by sixty miles of desert. Cuzco, the old Inca capital, is on an 
interior table-land, at an elevation of over eleven thousand feet. The ruins 
of the Inca citadels and u palaces }> are still to be seen, and many pure- 
blooded and half-breed Incas still dwell in and near the city. 

Bolivia. — This country, named after General Bolivar, the great 
South American leader in the revolt against Spain, was robbed of 
its seacoast by Chile. What other South American country has no sea- 
coast ? In a broad valley between the mountains is Lake Titicaca 

(Fig. 300), partly in Peru 
and partly in Bolivia. This 
lake, the greatest in South 
America, is a third as large 
as Lake Erie; and its 
elevation, twelve thousand 
five hundred feet above 
the sea, makes it the most 
elevated great lake in the 
world. 

The Incas occupied this 
region also, and mined 

much gold. Besides gold 
the Spanish discovered veins of copper, tin, and silver, so that 
mining has been one of the most important industries of the 
country. It is said that over three billion dollars’ worth of silver 
has been secured since the Spanish discovery. Bolivia is also one 
of the great tin-producing countries of the world. 

The mining and reduction of the ore are done by very crude methods. 

T or example, instead of using costly machines for crushing the ore, as in 
the United States, one method is to roll boulders around on the ore. Since 
there are practically no railways, goods are transported for the most part 
by trams of pack mules, donkeys, alpacas, or llamas (Figs. 284 and 301). 
The lama here, as m Peru, is of great value to the inhabitants, not merely 
as a beast of burden, but also as a source of wool for clothing. 

Much of eastern Bolivia, like eastern Peru and the Amazon val¬ 
ley, is an almost unknown forest wilderness. But in the mountain 
valleys and on the plateaus agriculture is carried on, with products 
similar to those of Peru. Most of these are consumed at home, 
though some coffee is exported. 



Fig. 300. 


An Indian boy in a rush boat on Lake Titicaca. The 
fact that rushes are still used in making boats 
shows how these people cling to ancient customs. 











CHILE 


309 


Better railways and the improvement of the rivers, so as to per¬ 
mit river transportation to the Atlantic, are among the greatest 
needs of the country. Through what rivers could boats pass to the 
sea? Find the capital of Bolivia. La Paz, the largest city, lias 
twice as many inhabitants as the capital. 

Chile 

Physiography and Climate.—Since the divide between the 
Atlantic and Pacific drainage forms the eastern boundary line of 
Chile, the country is ver}^ narrow in an east and west direction. It 
is also very mountainous (Fig. 302). Except in the south, the coast 
line is regular like that of the rest of South America. 



Fig. 301 . 

A group of llamas in the Andes. 


The climate varies more than'that of any other South American 
country. The northern part is within the torrid zone, while the 
southern end reaches far into the bleak south temperate zone ; and 
on the mountain slopes there is every climate from frigid 1 to torrid. 
Moreover, northern Chile is arid and in places an absolute desert ; 
but central and southern Chile reach into the rainy belt of prevail¬ 
ing westerlies (Fig. 249). The best developed section lies in the 
middle part, between the hot, arid north and the bleak, rainy south. 
This part of Chile is bathed by a cold current from the south, which 

1 The name Chile is derived from an Indian word signifying snow. 









310 


SOUTH AMERICA 


cools the air as the Laborador current chills that of New England 
(Fig. 264). 

Mineral Wealth. —There is much mineral wealth, including lead, 
silver, coal, and copper. The latter is of such importance that 
Chile, like the United States, is one of the great copper-producing 
countries of the world. There are also beds of nitrate of soda 
which are situated in territories taken during the war of 1879-80, 
and at present yield the government an annual income of fully 
$10,000,000. Nitrate is the principal export. 



Fig. 302. 


Snow-covered mountains of Chile. 

. nitrate beds occur in the midst of the desert of Atacama, in which 
ram very seldom falls. The substance occurs in layers a few inches to 
one or two feet thick, over an area thirty or forty miles in breadth. In 
color it varies, according to the impurities contained. After behm dim 
out, the pure nitrate is dissolved and separated from the impurities, and 
en sold. Its chief use is that of a'fertilizer, for which purpose great 
quantities are shipped from the port of Iquique. 

Agriculture, Manufacturing, and General Development. — There is 
much agriculture in Chile, especially in the rainy middle portion. 
I le principal crops are the various grains, tobacco, and vegetables, 
thus resembling agriculture in many parts of the United States. 
More wheat and barley are produced than are needed at home, so 
that Chile helps to supply other nations with grain. Large herds of 
cattle are also reared, and sheep raising is one of the chief industries 









QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 


311 


in southern Chile. Hides, shoe leather, and wool are exported. 
More manufacturing is carried on than in most South American 
countries, the principal kinds being flour milling, cheese making, 
tanning, and shoe manufacturing; but as elsewhere on that conti¬ 
nent, machinery and many other manufactured articles are purchased 
in Europe and the United States. 

Chile is one of the most progressive countries in South America. 
Its government is stable, and its industries are well developed. This 
progress is doubtless in large part due to the temperate climate, 
which requires energy on the part of its inhabitants, and invites 
settlers from the temperate climate of Europe. It is interesting to 
note that the two most advanced nations of South America lie side 
by side in the temperate zone. 

Cities. — The principal cities are Santiago, the capital and 
largest city, situated inland, and Valparaiso, its seaport. As at 
Callao (p. 307), the harbor of Valparaiso is open to the north; but 
the wind seldom blows from that quarter. 


Islands near the Continent 

The Galapagos Islands, about six hundred miles west of Ecuador, on 
the equator, are a group of small volcanic islands owned by Ecuador. 
They are too far from the continent to show on our map. 

Just east of the southern tip of South America are the Falkland 
Islands, which belong to Great Britain. Still farther east are the islands 
of South Georgia, also British. Just off the coast of Venezuela, opposite 
the mouth of the Orinoco, is the low island of Trinidad, also a British 
possession. This island is especially noted for its extensive pitch lake, 
from which asphaltum is obtained for use in making asphalt pavements. 
The asphaltum oozes slowly from the ground, and, as it is dug out, more 
oozes forth, as if there were an inexhaustible supply beneath the surface. 

West of Chile, and belonging to that country, is the island of Juan 
Fernandez. This is the island where Selkirk was wrecked, and by some 
is thought to be the island home of Robinson Crusoe. It seems quite cer¬ 
tain, however, that Defoe described Tobago, just north of Trinidad. 

Review Questions. — (1) State some resemblances between South America 
and North America. (2) Describe the highland regions. (3) The lowlands. 
(4) In what respects do North and South America differ ? (5) Tell about the 
differences in temperature indifferent parts of South America. (6) Explain the 
regions of heavy rainfall. (7) Where are the arid belts ? Give the reasons. 
(8) What about the rainfall in the south? (9) Why does the rainfall vary with 
the season in the tropical belt? (10) What differences in the plant life are found 
in South America? Why? (11) Tell about the animals of the tropical forest. 


312 


SOUTH AMERICA 


(12) Of the plains and mountains. (13) Describe the Indian life in the forest. 
(14) What can you tell about the Incas? (15) State the main facts in the history 
of South America since the whites came, (lb) Describe the principal physio¬ 
graphic features of Brazil. (17) What are the variations in climate? (18) Tell 
about the influence of rainfall upon the vegetation and the rivers. (19) Describe 
the tropical forest of the Amazon. (20) What valuable products are found? 
(21) What can you tell about mandioca? (22) Tell about coffee raising. 
(23) What other products come from Brazil? (24) Name and locate the prin¬ 
cipal cities; what can you say about each ? (25) Describe the physiography of 

Argentina. (26) What influence have the physiography and climate had upon 
development? (27) How does ranching in Argentina differ from that of the 
United States? Why? (28) What are the principal farm products? (29) Tell 
about manufacturing. (30) About commerce. (31) How does Argentina differ 
from many other South American countries? (32) Compare Buenos Aires with 
New York. (33) Locate the other cities named. (34) What are the industries 
of Uruguay? (35) Name the capital. (36) Compare Uruguay with Argentina. 
(37) What about the climate and products of Paraguay? (3S) Name the three 
Guianas. (39) What are the conditions and products? (40) Describe the physi¬ 
ography of Venezuela. (41) What are the principal industries ? (42) What can 
you tell about Caracas ? (43) Name the Andean countries. (44) Tell about the 

climate, its variations, and influence on the farm products. (45) What about 
the minerals? (46) What was the influence of the Spaniards? (47) Give rea¬ 
sons for the locations of the capitals. (48) Of what importance is the Isthmus of 
Panama? (49) Describe the physiography and industries of Colombia. (50) What 
about the capital? (51) Tell about the effect of climate on the industries in Ecua¬ 
dor. (52) Name the products. (53) Why is there little mining and manufactur¬ 
ing? (54) Locate the principal cities. (55) Tell about the physiography and 
climate of Peru. (56) About the minerals and agricultural products. (57) Locate 
and tell about the principal cities. (58) What about the large lake in Bolivia? 
(59) Tell about the mining. (60) The other industries. (61) The transporta¬ 
tion of goods. (62) Describe the physiography of Chile. (63) The climate. 
(64) Name the mineral products. (65) What other industries are developed? 
(66) Why is Chile so progressive? (67) Locate the largest cities. (68) Locate 
the island groups mentioned. 

Review and Comparison with North America. — (1) Which of the two 
Americas has the advantage in regard to latitude? Show how. (2) Tell about 
the effects of the trade winds in each continent (Fig. 251). (3) Of the pre¬ 
vailing westerlies (Figs. 250 and 252). (4) Locate the arid sections in each 

continent, and give the reasons for the lack of rain (Figs. 249-252). (5) Point 

out the rainiest section in each, and state the causes. (6) Which of the two conti¬ 
nents has the better position for world commerce? Why? (7) Into what ocean 
do the principal rivers of South America flow? Of North America? (8) What 
can you say about the regularity of the coast of the two grand divisions? Which 
has the advantage in this respect? How ? (9) Locate the principal coast cities of 

South America. Of North America. Give the main advantages of the location 
in each case. (10) V hat about the number of lakes in each continent and their 
value for commerce? (11) TV hat interior cities in each continent can you locate? 
(12) Compare both Brazil and Argentina with the United States in area; in popu¬ 
lation. (13) Compare Chile with Texas in these two respects. (14) What im¬ 
portant farm products are common to South America and the United States? 
(1<>) Name some products that are extensively raised in one and not in the other. 


QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 


313 


(16) Which parts of eacli continent are especially noted for cotton? Coffee? 
Wheat? Cattle and sheep? Copper? Precious metals? (17) What is the pre¬ 
vailing kind of government in North and in South America? 

Suggestions. — (1) Give several reasons why South America has been much 
less rapidly settled than North America. (2) What parts of North America have 
been rising and on that account possess few good natural harbors? (3) Ilow’does 
the Spaniards’ treatment of the Incas compare with their treatment of the North 
American Indians? (1) Find out some of the ways in which coffee is often adul¬ 
terated. (5) Make a sand model of South America; a drawing. (6) If you were 
expecting to emigrate there, where would you prefer to settle ? Why? (7) What 
products of South America are you probably seeing and using from week to week? 

For References, see Teacher's Book. 



Fig. V. 

The St. Gothard Railway on the Italian side of the Alps. Notice the three levels. At this 
point the railway passes through two spiral tunnels in order to climb the steep slope of 
the mountain valley before finally plunging into the main St. Gothard tunnel. 





314 


What reasons can you suggest for the fact that certain parts (like central Spain, northern Russia and Scandinavia, and the 

country between the Black and Caspian seas) are not densely populated? 



















315 


Relief Map of Europe. 


















Coal map of Europe. 



The ice sheet of Europe. 


316 

































Part IV 


EUROPE 


--OOXKOO- 

I. PHYSIOGRAPHY, CLIMATE, AND PEOPLE 

The continent of Europe was named when only the southern part 
of it was known ; that is, the portion that is separated from Africa 
and Asia by water. On Figure 304 find what these bodies of water 
are called. As exploration extended, it was found that Europe was 
really continuous with Asia, being in fact a great peninsula extend¬ 
ing westward. Europe and Asia together actually form a single 
continent called Eurasia ; but since Europe has been long consid¬ 
ered a separate continent, and has figured so prominently as the 
home of the civilized races, it seems best to treat it separately. 

On the map (Fig. 353) trace the boundary between Europe and Asia. 
Make an outline map, inserting the boundaries and names of the European 
countries. Add the names of the seas and the larger islands. What countries 
are partly or wholly on peninsulas? Add to the map the large rivers with 
their names. Where are the chief divides? Mark with heavy lines the 
location of the principal mountains (Fig. 304). Write their names on the 
map. From what has previously been learned, what can you tell about 
the people of Europe ? About the climate ? What does the peculiar con¬ 
dition of the Caspian Sea tell about the climate in that section ? 


Physiography 

Highlands and Lowlands. — As in the case of North America, the 
development of the continent of Europe has required millions of 
years. Far back in time mountains appeared above the sea in the 
northwestern portion of the continent. Although greatly worn by 
the weathering of the ages, and much reduced in elevation, these 
mountains may still be seen in Finland, Scandinavia (the peninsula 
occupied by Norway and Sweden), and Scotland (I igs. 315 and 355), 

317 


318 


EUROPE 


as well as in Germany and Belgium. They resemble the mountains 
of New England and eastern Canada, that have likewise been greatly 
worn by weathering. 

Other mountain ranges were later formed in southern Europe ; 
but, like those of western America, they are young and their recent 
growth has been vigorous. Therefore the Pyrenees (Eig. 336), 
Alps (Fig. 379), and Caucasus (Fig. 307) are still of great height, 
hind each on Figure 304. The mountains of North and South 
America form continuous chains, with the highest ranges in the 
west, extending north and south. But in Europe the loftiest moun- 



Fig. 307. 

A view over the snow-capped peaks of the Caucasus Mountains. A sea of fo°- 

fills the valley. 


tains are in the south, extending in various directions, though mainly 
east and west. How does this condition promise a different effect 
on the climate? It is to the fact that the mountains are not con¬ 
tinuous, and that they consist of chains extending in various direc¬ 
tions, that Europe owes much of its extremely irregular outline. 


Besides the mountains mentioned, there is a long, low chain, known 
as the Urals, which extends north and south on the eastern side, and for a 
pai t of the distance forms the boundary between Europe and Asia. Other 

sitaated? ” gh aUds ar ® shown on Fi g ure 304 - Where mainly are they 


Between the low mountains of the north and east and the higher 
ranges of the south there is a very extensive lowland (Fig. S04). 







PHYSIOGRAPHY 


319 


A part of this has been submerged by the sinking of the land, thus 
forming the shallow Baltic Sea. Beginning in the west with south¬ 
ern England, and passing through Belgium and Holland, or the 
4 * Low Countries,’ this plain broadens as it extends eastward across 



Fig. 308. 

Looking across the level plain of north Germany. Peat is dug on this plain near the river. 


Germany (Fig. 308), until it includes almost all of Russia (Fig. 304). 
Estimate its length east and west. About two thirds of Europe is 
included in this plain. 

Coal Beds. — While these mountains and plains were forming, 
coal beds were also accumulating, as was the case in America 
(p. 2) during the Coal Period. 

Figure 305 shows the parts of Europe in which coal beds occur. 
In what countries are they ? Most of the coal is bituminous or soft 
coal, though there is some anthracite. In a number of sections 
lignite , or brown coal, is mined; and peat (Fig. 308) is also dug for 
fuel in western Europe, where the damp climate favors its formation. 

The Great Ice Sheet.—At the same period that eastern North 
America was invaded by a great ice sheet from the north, snow accu¬ 
mulated on the highlands of northwestern Europe and, changing to 
ice, spread outward in all directions. Figure 306 shows the extent 
of the European ice sheet. 

The Coast Line. — The irregularities of the coast line of northern 
Europe, like those of northeastern North America, are due to the 
sinking of the land. The Baltic Sea and its gulfs represent old land 
valleys; and the hills of this submerged land form either islands, 
peninsulas, or shallow banks where food fish abound. 




320 


EUROPE 



It is well proved that, before the Glacial Period, the British Isles were 
connected with the mainland by low plains where the North Sea and 
English Channel now exist. An elevation of only a few hundred feet 
would restore this condition by changing the bed of the North Sea to dry 
land. This would then extend the continent westward beyond the British 

Isles, thus destroying the 
bays and harbors, and alter¬ 
ing the entire outline of 
northwestern Europe. 

In southern Europe 
the rising- and sinking- of 
small areas of land — 
while the mountains were 
forming —has made many 
peninsulas, with bays, 
gulfs, islands, and seas be¬ 
tween. The Mediterra¬ 
nean itself occupies a 
basin, thousands of feet 
in depth, formed by the 
sin King ot tins part ot the earth’s crust. Some of these islands, how- 
e\ei, aie partly or wholly built up by volcanic action. What volcano 
is on the island of Sicily ? (Fig. 375.) 


Fig. 309. 

A fjord on the coast of Norway — a mountain valley 
into which the sea has been admitted by sinking 
of the land. (See also Fig. 355.) 


Climate 

Influence of Latitude. I race the 50th parallel of latitude on a 
globe or map of the world. Notice that while the 49th parallel 
forms the northern boundary of western United States, it passes 
entirely south of England, crosses France near Paris, and extends 
through southern Germany and Russia. From this it is evident that 
by far the larger part of Europe lies farther north than the United 
States, and due east of Canada. St. Petersburg is in the same 
latitude as northern Labrador ; and the tips of the peninsulas of 

southern Europe reach about as far south as the southern boundary 
of Virginia. 

In the far north, near the Arctic, the climate is bleak, and there 
are barren, frozen tundras. South of this is a belt of fir, spruce, 
and pine, like that which stretches east and west across central 
Canada. But contrary to what might be expected from latitude 
alone, the climate in and just south of this belt of evergreen forest 









CL IMA TE 


321 

permits the growth of the grains and fruits that flourish in southern 
Canada and northern United States. In southern Europe, in the 
latitude of central United States, such semi-tropical fruits as oranges, 
lemons, olives, and figs are cultivated. That is to say, the products 
of the greater part of Europe are such as grow several hundred 
miles farther south in eastern North America. 

That these products are raised in great abundance in Europe is 
indicated by the number of people there ; for, although the conti¬ 
nent is much Jess than half the size of North America, it supports 
four times as many inhabitants, or nearly 400,000,000. Let us see 
the explanation of these remarkable facts. 

Resemblance to Western North America. — In several respects the 
climate of Europe is so similar to that of western North America that 
a brief review will be useful. Recall the facts stated on pages 253, 272. 

The prevailing westerlies are felt in northern Europe as in the 
United States. Blowing from the ocean, and, what is especially 
important, from across the warm ocean current (p. 207), they dis¬ 
tribute an enormous amount of heat over the land. It is the wester¬ 
lies from these warm waters, more than any other factor, that allow 
crops to be raised nearer the pole in Europe than in any other part 
of the globe. If these conditions were not present, much of that 
densely populated continent (Fig. 303) would be barren waste, like 
Labrador. 

The effect of the ocean winds is naturally greatest near the coast, 
as in western North America. Therefore England lias a mild, rainy 
climate ; but the farther eastward one goes, the less is the influence 
of the ocean. Thus eastern Russia experiences great extremes of 
heat and cold, and there is danger of serious droughts. Compare 
the summer and winter temperature (Figs. 268 and 269) and the 
rainfall (Fig. 310) of these two sections. 

Southern Europe, like Lower California, is not affected by the 
westerlies in summer, for it then lies within the belt of the horse 
latitudes. This accounts for the fact that southern Spain, Italy, and 
Greece receive very little rain in summer. Examine Figure 310 to 
see where in Europe the rainfall is light. Find some places where 
there is abundant rain on mountain slopes. 

Influence of Cyclonic Storms. — Thus far we have seen a striking 
resemblance in the climates of the two continents. But there are 
also notable differences. The westerlies are less regular in Europe 
than in western North America because of frequent interruption by 


322 


EUROPE 


the cyclonic storms, which, after passing over eastern North America, 
often cross the ocean and continue across Europe (p. 258). Why 
cannot their arrival be predicted as well as in the United States ? 

As in eastern United States and Canada, the cyclonic storms cause 
variable winds (Fig. 261). For example, when a storm center is west of 
the British Isles the westerlies are interfered with and the winds blow 
successively from all points. But while storm winds from the east brim? 



Fig. 310. 


iam to eastern North America, the same kind of winds cannot bring rain 
to eastern Europe, because there is no great ocean near at hand to supply 

Europe has IitHe CC0Unt ° f ^ absence of 00ean wa ter, therefore, eastern 
mope has little rain, as eastern America would have if there were land 

instead of water to the east of it. a 

Effect of Mountain Ranges. — The direction in which the high¬ 
lands extend is another cause of great difference between the climates 
of Europe and America. In America, where high mountains extend 
noi h and south along the entire western margin of the continent, 
the warm, damp westerlies are soon deprived of their moisture. 
I his leaves a vast arid and semi-arid area in the interior. 












































PEOPLE 


323 


In Europe, on the other hand, where the higher ranges extend 
nearly east and west, the mountains do not so seriously interfere with 
the movement of vapor to the interior. Consequently the west winds 
surrender their moisture only very gradually. This accounts for the 
fact that in the belt of westerlies, from western Ireland to eastern 
Russia, there is rainfall enough for agriculture. 

r lhe east-west direction of the lofty mountains has a marked influence 
on the climate of those portions of Europe that lie on the north and south 
sides. Rising like great walls, the mountains prevent south winds from 
bearing northward the heat of the Mediterranean basin; and they also 
interfere with the passage of the chilling winds from the north. We know 
that Florida, much farther south than southern Europe, is visited by cold 
waves and accompanying frosts ; but mountain barriers prevent such winds 
in portions of southern Europe. 

Inland Seas. — The numerous inland seas are another great factor in 
influencing the climate of parts of Europe. Draw a sketch map of Europe, 
locating the seas. How does the Mediterranean compare in length with 
Lake Superior ? It will be remembered that our Great Lakes produce a 
marked influence on the climate of the neighboring land, moderating the 
heat of summer and the cold of winter. It is this influence, added to that 
of the mountain barrier, that gives to southern Italy, Greece, France, and 
Spain such an equable and semi-tropical climate. How must these seas 
influence the rainfall ? 


People 

The people of Europe have never been bound closely together 
as one great nation with common interests. One of the important 
reasons for this is the fact that so many parts of the continent are 
quite detached from all others. Spain, for example, is not only a 
peninsula, but it is separated from France by a high range of moun¬ 
tains. The British Isles are entirely cut off by water ; Scandinavia 
nearly so; and Italy itself is bounded on the north by lofty moun¬ 
tains, and by water on all other sides. It is natural that people 
living in such isolated positions should not feel a common interest 
with those who are separated from them. Thus have arisen many 
different customs, beliefs, and languages. 

In consequence of this isolation and lack of common interests 
there are many more nations in Europe than in North America. 
Count them (Fig. 353). There have been many jealousies and 
disputes among them which have been settled by war, and their 
boundaries have been subjected to numerous changes, as one nation 

23— a o 


324 


EUROPE 


or another has seized territory during war. Notice also how 
irregular are some of the boundary lines. Those of Germany, for 
example, have been determined only after the loss of tens of thou¬ 
sands of human lives. 

Influence of the Discovery of America. — Of the many great 
achievements of Europeans within modern times, probably the 
greatest was the discovery of America. In thinking of this event 
we are apt to consider only the mighty influence Europe has had 
on America. But the New World has also exerted a powerful 
influence upon Europe. The encouragement given to navigation 
by this discovery led Europeans to explore other parts of the 
world. Their knowledge was thereby greatly increased and their 
wealth as well. Also, the crowded condition of Europe has been 
much relieved; for many nations have poured forth emigrants, not 
only to North and South America, but also to Australia and Africa, 
and, more recently, even to Asia. 

Review Questions. — (1) Give reasons for and against treating Europe as 
a separate continent. (2) Tell about the highlands. (3) The lowlands. (4) The 
coal beds. (5) The Ice Age. (G) Locate the boundary of the ice sheet (Fig. 306) 
on 1 iguie 353. (<) tell about the coast line in northern Europe. (8) In southern 

Europe. (9) Of what advantage is the irregularity of the European coast? 
(10) Give the latitude of northern and of southern Europe. (11) IIow about 
its vegetation ? (12) Its population ? (13) Remembering its latitude, explain 
the mild climate of Europe. (14) How are its regular westerlies interfered with ? 
(lo) IIow is the east and west direction of its mountain ranges of great impor¬ 
tance V (16) What is the influence of its inland seas? (17) Give some reasons 
why Europe is divided into so many nations. (18) How has the discovery of the 
New World proved of great benefit to Europe ? (19) In what respect is Europe 

the Fatherland of other countries ? 

Correlation with North America. —(1) Compare Europe with North 
America m regard to highlands. (2) To lowlands. (3) Distribution of coal 
W Extent of ice covering. (5) Irregularity of coast lines. (6) Latitude. 
(7) Vegetation (see also pp. 20-21). (8) Population. (9) In what respects are 

the two continents alike in climate ? (10) In what respects unlike ? (11) Com¬ 
pare the number of degrees of longitude in Europe with the number in North 
America. (12) Are the cyclonic storms as much needed in Europe as in America ? 
W hy . (13) \\ hy should the most densely populated part of Europe be on the 

western side while the most densely populated part of North America is on the 
eastern side ? 

Suggestions. —(1) What results might follow if the mountains of Europe 
extended north and south near the western coast? (2) What disadvantages do 
some of the European countries suffer in consequence of the east and west direc¬ 
tion of the mountains on their southern boundaries? (3) In what section would 

1 Some of these comparisons will be made easier by examining the figures on 
pages 254-265. ° 


SUGGESTIONS 


325 


you expect to find the most wild animals? (Fig. 303.) (4) Give reasons why 

some European countries, such as Germany, take much better care of their forests 
than Americans do. (5) Can you tell about any of the great wars and great gen¬ 
erals of Germany, England, or France? (G) Can you tell of any of the changes 
in boundary lines; for example, in Poland, or between France and Germany? 

4 / 



Fig. W. 

Mirror Lake, Yosemite Valley, California. 







II. THE BRITISH ISLES 


Position, Size, and Importance. — London is fully seven hundred 
miles farther north than New York City, and the British Isles are 
in the same latitude as Labrador. England itself is smaller than 
New England; and the British Isles, including England, Wales, 
Scotland, Ireland, and several hundred small islands, are not much 
larger than the state of Colorado. 

Yet in spite of their northern position and small area, the largest 
city in the world is located in the British Isles. More than that, 
Great Britain has more manufacturing, with the exception of the 
United States, more foreign trade, a greater number of vessels upon 
the sea, and more colonies (Eig. 312) than any other nation in exist¬ 
ence (Fig. 354). There are of course reasons for these remarkable 
facts, and we shall next look for them. 

Inhabitants. — The British people doubtless offer one important 
explanation of the above facts. Being so near the mainland the 


Fig. 311. 

Ancient cottage near the Lakes of Killarney in Ireland. 

326 







































































































































































































0 " 


2 



Fig. 313. 


Map Questions. — (1) AValk toward the British Isles. (2) What two large islands 
do they include? (3) What waters separate these two? (4) Name the three divi¬ 
sions of Great Britain. (5) Find the Orkuey, Hebrides, Shetland, and Channel 
Islands. They are included among the British Isles. (6) What sea lies east of Great 
Britain? (7) What country is nearest to Great Britain? (Fig. 352.) (8) What 

waters separate the two ? (9) Make a sketch map of the British Isles. (10) Com¬ 

pare the coast line with that of Spain (Fig. 337). With that of Norway (Fig. 352). 
What suggestion do you get from this comparison? 

















































































THE BRITISH ISLES 


327 


islands have been invaded by many hardy people, among them the 
Angles and Saxons , from whom the words English and Anglo-Saxon 
have been derived. The Normans also entered Britain, and still 
earlier the Romans under Julius Ciesar. 

Although formerly divided into different nations, England, Scot¬ 
land, and Ireland are now united to form the United Kingdom of 
Great Britain and Ireland. The inhabitants of each of these sec¬ 
tions are noted for their energy, intelligence, and high ideals, which 
in no small measure account for their success as a nation. 

Physiography and Climate. —The southwesterly winds from over 
the warm ocean (p. 321) also partly account for the greatness of the 
British Empire. Two days out of three these winds blow across 
the British Isles; and, since they have traversed a vast expanse of 
warm water, they greatly temper the climate. Indeed, the winter 
season is milder than that in northern United States, and the summer 
is cooler (Figs. 268 and 269). 

The prevailing westerlies, carrying an abundance of moisture 
(p. 321), so distribute it over the islands that no section suffers 
from drought. Yet the western portions receive more rain than 
the eastern, because the ocean winds visit them first (Fig. 314). 

The highlands also influence the rainfall. A highland rim 
extends around Ireland (Fig. 313), giving to the surface of that 
island the form of a shallow plate. How does that influence the 
rainfall ? (Fig. 314.) Highlands are also found in Wales, western 
England, and most of Scotland (Fig. 313). 

As already stated (p. 317) the mountains of Great Britain, like 
those of New England, are so old that they are worn very low. 
While this upland is rarely more than one or two thousand feet 
above sea level, there are occasional peaks of hard rock that rise to 
a greater height. For example, the granite peak of Ben Nevis in 
Scotland, the highest point in the British Isles, is forty-three hun¬ 
dred feet in elevation. The Scottish Highlands (Fig. 315) are so 
rugged and barren that few people are able to live there. 

Where the rocks are soft and easily worn away by water there 
are lower and more level tracts, or plains. Point out the broadest 
plains of Ireland, Scotland, and England (Fig. 313). 

The coast line is very irregular, as may be seen from the map. 
(Fig. 313.) How does the coast compare with that of New Eng¬ 
land ? You have already learned that this irregularity is due to 
sinking of the land; and that the many islands are tlie crests of 


328 


EUROPE 


former hills, while the bays and harbors are submerged valleys. 
Since the mountainous western portion had more deep valleys for the 
sea to enter than the level plains of the east, there are more good 
harbors on the west coast than on the eastern side of the islands. 
On both sides, however, the mouths of the larger rivers usually make 
good ports. Why ? 

Agriculture. — In connection with agriculture, much live stock is 
raised. In fact, grazing has of late so increased in importance that 
there is now twice as much land in pasture as in crops, and the Brit- 



Aberdeen 


did in burgh 


\ 

liel fast 


Mam b’Ster 


Dublin 


' Vo Turiningbamj 

•'K N G I. A N D 


London 


^outhairntcc; 


ish Isles are noted for 
their great number of 
fine cattle, sheep, and 
horses. The impor¬ 
tance of grazing is 
partly explained by 
the fact that much of 
the surface, like that 
of New England, is 
too rocky or moun¬ 
tainous to be culti¬ 
vated (Fig. 315). 
Besides this, some of 
the plains in eastern 
Enorland, although too 

O 7 o 

sterile for farming, 
make excellent pas¬ 
ture land. Two other 
facts favorable to 
stock raising are the 
mild winters and the 
damp atmosphere, 
which encourage the 
growth of grass. In 
addition to these causes, the cheapness with which grain is raised in 
other countries, like the United States, and transported to the British 
Isles on the larger steamships, has made it less necessary for the 
British to raise grain. 

Several of the smaller islands also are celebrated for their live 
stock. For instance, the Shetlands are famous for Shetland ponies; 
and on the three Channel Islands, — Jersey, Guernsey, and Alderney, 


RAINFALL 
I 'I 20-30 INS.— 58 

! , ) 30-60 INS. 

OVER 60 INS. 


Fig. 314. 

Rainfall map of the British Isles. 

































































THE BRITISH ISLES 


329 


— near the French coast, three breeds of cattle have been developed 
which are well known in the United States. 

The cool summer climate, which is of advantage in some respects, 
is unfavorable to many kinds of farming; for example, it prevents 
the production of corn, cotton, tobacco, and grapes, which require 
warm summers. More hardy products, however, as oats, barley, and 
wheat, are extensively cultivated. Turnips, potatoes, beans, and 
peas are other important crops ; also hops, which, together with 
barley, are used in the manufacture of beer. Owing to the many 
towns and cities, truck farming is of importance. 

The demand for farm land has been so great that large areas of swamp 
have been reclaimed by careful drainage, and these now make the most 
fertile farms. But in spite of the care that has been given to cultivating 
the soil and to raising live stock, far less food is produced than is needed 
by the inhabitants. Such vast multitudes are engaged in other occupa¬ 
tions that if they were deprived of food from abroad, they would, it is 



Fig. 315. 

Pasture land in the Highlands of Scotland. 

said, begin to suffer from famine within a month. How different that is 
from our own country, of which the area is so large, and climate so varied, 
that it not only supplies the food we need, but produces enormous quanti¬ 
ties to be sent abroad. 

Fishing. — Since the early inhabitants had to cross the sea in order to 
reach these islands, and since most of their descendants have lived either 





330 


EUROPE 


on or near the coast, it is natural that, as a people, they should become 
accustomed to a seafaring life. This sort of life has also been encouraged 
by the fact that food fish abound on the shallow banks of the North Sea 
and of the ocean to the north and west of the islands. More than one 
hundred thousand men and twenty-five thousand boats from the British 
Isles are employed in the fishing industry. Among the fish caught are 




Hi 




Fig. 316. 


A cottage in southwestern England. 

cod, haddock, and herring, as off the coast of New England and New¬ 
foundland. Another important kind is a flat-fish, the sole, which resem¬ 
bles the flounder of the New England coast. Salmon enter the rivers of 
northern Great Britain, and oysters are found along the southern coast. 

Many fishing hamlets are scattered along the shore; but the fishing 
industry here, as in New England, is becoming more and more centralized 
in the large towns, which possess the capital for large vessels and expen¬ 
sive fishing outfits. The chief centers of the trade, like Boston and 
Gloucester in Massachusetts, are London, Hull, and Grimsby (Fig. 322), 
in England, and Aberdeen in Scotland. 

Mining. —One of the resources of the British Isles which early 
attracted people from southern Europe was the tin in southwestern 
England. This metal is not mined in many parts of the world, but 
has always been in great demand ; and even before the time of Caesar, 
ships from the Mediterranean came to England to obtain tin for use 
in the manufacture of bronze. Small quantities of copper, lead, zinc, 
and even gold and silver ores have also been discovered in the British 
Isles, but at present there is almost no mining of these metals. 






TIIE BRITISH ISLES 


331 


On the other hand, the abundance of two other minerals, coal and 
iron ore, reminds us of our own country. This one small island 
of Great Britain produces almost as much coal as all of our states 
together; and the United States and Great Britain are the lead¬ 
ing coal-producing countries of the world. Figure 317 shows the 
sections of Great Britain in which coal is found. While most of the 
coal is bituminous, that in South Wales is mainly anthracite. Large 
numbers of miners in the United States are Welshmen who have come 
from that section. 


Parts of Great Britain possess the same advantage as Birming¬ 
ham, Alabama, the name of which is derived from the close resem¬ 
blance of conditions about 
it to those about Birming¬ 
ham, England. None of 
the British iron ore is far 
from coal; and in places 
the same shaft is used to 
bring both coal and iron to 
the surface. Limestone is 
also abundant and near at 
hand. What suggestions 
do these facts give con¬ 
cerning the development of 
manufactures and the loca¬ 
tion of large cities? 

Besides these minerals, 
various building stones are 
extensively quarried, as gran¬ 
ite in Scotland, and slate in 
northern Wales. Salt is also 
found; and there is clay of 
such excellent quality for 
earthenware that several 
towns have become noted for¬ 
th eir potteries, as Trenton 
and Cincinnati have in the 
United States. The extent 

of the mining industry in the United Kingdom is indicated by the fact 
that there more than half a million persons are employed underground. 



Fig. 317. 

A map showing the coal fields of the British Isles. 
Why are so many of the large cities on or near the 
coal fields ? 


Reasons for Development of Manufacturing.—Considering the 
abundance of coal and iron ore on the one hand, and of wool from 








332 


EUROPE 


the millions of sheep on the other, it is clear that Great Britain is 
able to manufacture extensively. Even in very early times the 
English were engaged in the weaving of woolen cloth. Later, 
owing to numerous wars and to the oppression from rulers on the 
continent, England became a refuge for oppressed industrial people 
from the mainland, so that such manufacturing rapidly increased. 

As in New England, the hilly sections have abundant water 
power due to the former glacier, and this also favored manufacturing. 
Later, when steam was employed, the abundant stores of coal were of 



Fig. 318. 

A castle in Wales, situated on one of the hills of hard rock. 


great importance. The use of steam has led to the building of many 
factories, and to the growth of manufacturing centers. Therefore, 
the making of cloth on hand looms at the homes of the weavers has 
been generally abandoned. 

The peculiar energy and inventive genius of the British, which kept 
their machinery in advance of that used by other nations, must also be 
considered. For example, it was the Scotchman, James Watt, who 
invented the modern steam engine; and it was George Stephenson who 
invented the first locomotive. The very smallness of the country is 








TI1E BRITISH ISLES 


333 


another advantage; for no matter where a factory may be located, it is 
near the coal fields and within a few miles of a shipping point. 


Woolen and Cotton Manufactures. — In the mountainous section 
of northern England, near both coal and wool, are hundreds of fac¬ 
tories engaged in the manufacture of woolen cloth. The principal 
center of this trade is Leeds, which has the added advantage of 
water power. On the western side of this hilly region is Brad¬ 
ford, noted for its broadcloth and worsted goods ; and neighboring 
cities manufacture woolen yarn, hosiery, carpets, and blankets. The 
woolen industry extends northward into Scotland and southward to 
Leicester, where the surrounding plains produce a breed of sheep 
that yields a wool for worsted yarn. 

From the spinning and weaving of wool it was easy to move to 
cotton manufacturing; and on the western side of the northern 
mountains we find a great cotton-manufacturing industry. Damp¬ 
ness is one of the points in favor of that section, for in a dry air 
cotton is in danger of becoming too brittle to spin and weave easily. 
Another reason why this work is best developed on the west side of 
the island is the fact that it is nearer to the United States, from which 
so much of the raw cotton comes. 

The center of the cotton manufacturing is Manchester. What 
cities do you find situated near by ? This portion of Great Britain, 
including southern Scotland and the two sides of the mountain range 
of northern England, is the seat of the greatest textile industry in 
the world. Can you name cities of New England which are likewise 
encraered ill cotton and woolen manufacture? 

O o 


In spite of the enormous number of sheep in the British Isles, the 
manufacturing industry has so far outgrown the local supply of wool that 
millions of pounds must be imported every year. This condition resem¬ 
bles that of New England, where much of the wool is brought from 
Ohio, and more western states, as well as from foreign countries. As 
to cotton, since the British climate will not permit its cultivation, it is 
necessary to import about two billion pounds a year to supply the 
mills. Although much cotton is now obtained from Egypt, India, and 
other parts of the British Empire, our Southern States still supply the 
greatest quantity. 

Iron and Steel Manufacturing. —The cities in Great Britain that 
are most noted for iron and steel products are Birmingham and 
Sheffield in England, and Glasgow in Scotland. Birmingham 
manufactures jewelry, watches, firearms, bicycles, steam engines, etc. 


334 


EUROPE 


Sheffield has for centuries been distinguished for cutlery, the 
existence of grindstone quarries in the neighborhood being a partial 
reason for this particular industry. Why? It also manufactures 
steel rails and armor plates for warships. Glasgow is a center for 
shipbuilding and for the manufacture of locomotives and machinery 
of various kinds. 

In cities round about these places are similar works; and as in New 
England, many of those occupied with the textile industry also produce 
textile machinery and other iron and steel goods. The island is so small 
that coal and iron are cheaply shipped to various points ; and on this 
account, manufacturing, though best developed near the coal fields, is not 
confined to these districts. 

I hus we see that here, as in the United States, coal makes possi¬ 
ble an enormous industrial development. But in spite of the forest 
of chimneys in England and southern Scotland, the output of coal is 



Fig. 319. 

The Clyde, at Glasgow. Fifty years ago the river could be forded at this place, hut it has 
been deepened by dredging so that the largest vessels now enter. 


moie than sufficient to meet the demands. The materials to be manu¬ 
factured, however, are not sufficient; for all the cotton, much of the 
wool, and part of the iron ore must be imported. 

These three industries, connected with cotton, wool, and iron, 
have made (Treat Britain one of the great workshops of the world. 

I he most important is cotton manufacturing; iron ranks next, and 
wool is third. 

Ireland. — Ireland forms a striking contrast to Great Britain in 
several respects. In the first place, it is mainly a country of farms 








THE BRITISH ISLES 


335 


instead of manufactures. I he mild climate and damp atmosphere 
insure excellent grass throughout the year, and about four fifths of 
the farm land is in pasture. It follows, therefore, that great numbers 
of cattle, sheep, and horses are raised. As in Great Britain, the prin¬ 
cipal grain is oats; but barley, wheat, potatoes, and turnips are 
also raised. 

Again, unlike Great Britain, Ireland is very barren of minerals. 
Building stones, such as granite, marble, and sandstone, are found, 
but there is extremely little coal or iron. For that reason, whatever 
manufacturing has been developed is found chiefly on the eastern 
side, where coal is easily obtained from England or Scotland. At 
one point the two islands are only thirteen miles apart. 

The lack of coal for use in the homes is partly made up by the abun¬ 
dance of “ turf ” or peat. Owing to the deposits of glacial drift, which 
have obstructed the streams (Fig. 320), the level interior is so poorly 



Fig. 320. 

The famous Lakes of Killarney in the hilly part of southwestern Ireland. They are formed 

where glacial drift has obstructed the drainage. 

drained that marshes or bogs occupy about one twelfth of the entire sur¬ 
face of the island. The water in these bogs protects the swamp vegetation 
from decay, so that it accumulates, forming a sod, which, when dug up and 
dried, makes a fairly good fuel. It will be remembered that similar de¬ 
posits, in the larger swamps of the Coal Period, caused the coal beds which 
are now of so much value (p. 4). 

While manufacturing is little developed, there is one kind that 
flourishes in Ireland; namely, the making of linen. The Irish linens, 







336 


EUROPE 


which take high rank in our country, are made from the inner bark 
of the flax plant. Flax is grown in various parts of the United States, 
but mainly for the sake of the seed, from which linseed oil is made, 
iliis oil is used in mixing paints and in making varnish. In Ire¬ 
land, however, flax is raised chiefly for its fiber. 


The damp climate of Ireland is favorable to the growth of flax, and the 
cheap labor makes possible the great amount of care required in preparing 
it for the manufacture of linen. The stem of flax is tall and slender, and 
a field of it presents somewhat the same appearance as a field of oats. 
Instead of being cut, like grain, it is pulled up and left lying upon the 
ground for some time, exposed to the dew and weather, so that the gummy 
substance, which holds the woody matter and fiber together, may decay. 
Aftei the fibei has been separated from the woody core by machinery, it is 
split and combed out with a steel brush and thus made ready for spinning. 

Travelers in northern Ireland in summer see field after field covered 
with flax, which is used chiefly in linen factories at Belfast. The fiber is 
made into thread in much the same manner as cotton or wool, and this is then 
woven into napkins, tablecloths, etc. Name other articles made of linen. 

Ii eland foims a contrast to Great Britain in regard to population. 
Not only is it far less densely peopled, but the number of inhabitants 
is decreasing. Partly because of the unfavorable laws imposed by England, 
the Irish have long been discontented with their lot; and since the disastrous 
potato famine in 1847, they have been abandoning the country. They have 
sought refuge chiefly in America, and since the date mentioned, the num¬ 
ber of inhabitants has been reduced from 8,000,000 to 5,000,000. 


Location of Principal Cities. —The cities most distinguished for 
maiiufactuiing have already been mentioned; namely, Leeds, Brad¬ 
ford, Manchester, Sheffield, Birmingham, and Glasgow. 
What industries are developed in each? 

Ilieie aie other large cities along the coast; for so much manu¬ 
facturing calls for an enormous import of raw materials and food, 
as well as the export of manufactured goods. These cities must,’ 
therefore, be the gateways to and from the island. And since Great 
Britain lies rather far north, between Europe and the New World, 
these shipping points must be located on the eastern, western, and 
southern sides, at those points where the best harbors exist, and not 
far from the great industrial centers. 

liist among the coastal cities to be noted is London, with 
Bristol opposite it on the west. Farther north is Hull, with 
Liverpool on the opposite side; and in southern Scotland is 
Edinburgh, near the coast, paired with Glasgow on the west. 
On the south side the two most important ports are Southamp- 


THE BRITISH ISLES 


007 

oo ( 

ton and Portsmouth. What are the principal cities of Ireland ? 
Steamships, railway lines, and canals connect the various cities, 
carrying immense quantities of freight. In Great Britain and 
Ireland there are nearly four thousand miles of canal and over 
twenty-one thousand miles of railway. 

London.— I his city, the largest in the world, is situated on the 
Thames River. The Thames, like many other British rivers, has a 
wide, deep mouth, owing to the sinking of the land, and London is 
located as far inland as high tide allows vessels to go, or fifty miles 
from the open sea. The advantage of this position lies in the fact 
that it is in the interior of the island, yet has direct water com¬ 
munication with foreign countries. 

As in all great cities, one of the principal industries is manu¬ 
facturing, nearly all kinds of goods being made, as in New York, 



Fig. 321. 

Commerce on the Thames below London Bridge. 

Chicago, and Philadelphia. But New York, we know, owes its great¬ 
ness largely to the fact that it is the gateway to a vast productive in¬ 
terior, while almost any point in England may be reached by rail from 
London in a few hours. Nevertheless, although Great Britain is small, 
its population is nearly one half as great as that of the United States, 
and the port of London is the point of entrance for much of its food. 














Fig. 322. 

The location of London and of Liverpool 
338 































339 


TI1E BRITISH ISLES 


In fact, this is the greatest shipping point in the world. Its rows of 
piers extend twenty miles down the river, and its railways radiate in all 
directions (Fig. 322). However, the fact that London lacks coal and iron 

near at hand, places it at some disadvantage compared with Liverpool 
and Glasgow. 


Besides being the capital of the British Empire (Fig. 312), which 
is the name applied to the United Kingdom and its dependencies, 
London is the" center for the publication of books and magazines, 
and is provided with noted picture galleries, libraries, museums, and 



Fig. 323. 
Windsor Castle. 


many magnificent buildings. Its wealth and trade are so extensive 
that it has been the money center of the world, though New York, 
the money center of the United States, now rivals it. The leading 
bank, called the Bank of England, is the agent of the government 
in many of its business transactions, and employs about a thousand 
persons. 

London being a very old city, many of the streets are narrow and 
crooked. Some of the principal streets are too narrow for street cars, so 
that, unlike American cities, the people have to be transported mainly by 
omnibuses. One of the largest companies runs thirteen hundred busses, 
and employs live thousand men and fifteen thousand horses. However, 
underground railways which encircle the great city, running under houses 
and streets, carry an enormous number of passengers. 

24—a a 









340 


EUROPE 


Near London are many places of interest. Just below the city, on the 
south side of the river, is the Greenwich observatory (p. 42), from which 
meridians of longitude are numbered and time is regulated. A few miles 
up the river is Windsor Castle (Fig. 323), the palace of the sovereigns of 
the Empire. Find Cambridge and Oxford (Fig. 322), the two leading 
university towns of Great Britain. 

Other English Cities .— Southwest of London, on the coast, is 
Southampton, where ocean steamers from the United States often 
stop (big. 327), and where fast trains wait to convey passengers to 
the metropolis. Close to Southampton is Portsmouth, which has 
a great navy yard. 

Almost due west of London, at the mouth of the Severn River, is 
Bristol, which is engaged in the lumber trade and in the manufacture of 
tobacco and chocolate. It was formerly next to London in size, but Liver¬ 
pool has now far out¬ 
stripped it. Can you sug¬ 
gest some reason why ? 
Just west of Bristol is Car¬ 
diff in Wales, the chief 
point in Great Britain for 
the export of coal. 

Knowing the occupa¬ 
tion of the dense popula¬ 
tion in northern England, 
we can tell the principal 
exports of Hull and Liv¬ 
erpool. What must 
they be? The fo rmer 
city naturally trades 
mainly with Europe, and 
the latter with the Ameri¬ 
cas and West Africa. 

Before the discovery 
of the New World, the 
west side of Great Britain 
had little commerce, and 
Liverpool (Fig. 322 ), 
therefore, had little business or growth. But with the settlement of 
America the city grew until it now has an immense trade with North 
and South America, and is the third in size in the United Kingdom. 







THE BRITISH ISLES 


341 


Many passengers from America land at this port and go by rail to 
London. Besides its commerce, Liverpool is also important for its 
shipbuilding. What circumstances are favorable to that industry? A 



Fig. 3:25. 

Kenilworth Castle, described by Scott in “ Kenilworth.” 



ship canal, about thirty-five miles in length, has recently been built 
to Manchester at an expense of $75,000,000. 

Cities of Scotland. —Glasgow (Fig. 319), on the western side 
of the lowland plain of southern Scotland, is not only a great manu¬ 
facturing center, but it is 
also a leading shipping 
point for the same reasons 
that Liverpool is. State 
them. What must be 
some of its principal im¬ 
ports and exports ? Why ? 

Edinburgh, unlike 
the other great cities 
named, is neither a ship¬ 
ping point nor an impor¬ 
tant manufacturing 
center. It is distin¬ 
guished as the capital of FlG * 32G - 

Scotland and as one of Shakespeare’s house at Stratford-on-Avon. Since this 

. . picture was taken, the house has been somewhat 

the most beautiful cities changed ill appearance. 




























342 


EUROPE 


of the British Isles. Its importance is historical rather than com¬ 
mercial ; for in the early days it commanded the entrance to the 
lowland of southern Scotland. The well-known University of 
Edinburgh is situated here. Leith, a short distance away, is the 
port for Edinburgh. 

Farther north on the coast are the important ports of Dundee and 
Aberdeen (p. 330). The former sends forth a number of Arctic whaling 
vessels each year, and is also engaged in the manufacture of linen. 



Cities of Ireland. —The principal cities of Ireland are on the east 
and south sides. Why? What has already been said about Bel¬ 
fast? (p. 336.) It is also noted for its shipbuilding. Dublin, the 

capital and largest city, and the chief 
port for the English trade, ships farm 
and other products to England and re¬ 
ceives manufactured goods in return. 
Queenstown has a fine harbor, and is 
a port of call for vessels bound from 
America to Great Britain. 

Fuller Reasons for the Greatness of 
the British Empire. —While we have 
learned many facts about the British 
Isles, some important questions are not 
yet fully answered. For example, why 
does this little country possess more 
colonies (Fig. 312) than any other 
nation of the earth? Further, why 
should it have the greatest foreign 
trade? And why the greatest number 
of vessels upon the sea? 

Some of the reasons in answer to 
these questions are as follows. The 
fact that Great Britain is so small — it 
is impossible to find a point more than 
seventy miles from the salt water—is a 
reason why many of the British have 
been sailors. It is not surprising, therefore, that they have produced 
many explorers. 

Nor is it to be wondered at that, as these explorers discovered 
new parts of the world, they laid claim to them in the name of their 


Fig. 327. 

large German steamship which 
stops at Southampton ; to show 
its great size in comparison with 
a high building in New York City 
and with the Washington Monu¬ 
ment (555 feet high). The length 
of this steamer is 648 feet, its 
width 66, and its depth 43 feet. 












THE BRITISH ISLES 


343 


mother country. In this way, and by war, Great Britain came into 
possession of the thirteen Colonies of North America, and of Canada, 
India, Australia, much of Africa, and many other places (Fig. 312). 
At present her territory includes about one fifth of the land surface 
of the globe and one fourth of its inhabitants. 

These colonies and dependencies help to explain Great Britain’s 
enormous foreign commerce ; for the colonies have found it more 
advantageous to trade with the mother country than with other 
nations speaking a different language and having less understanding 
of them or sympathy with them. Ihey sell to her their raw products, 
including food, and she in return sends to them clothing, steel goods, 



Fig. 328. 


The Houses of Parliament. 


and other manufactured articles. It is largely the exchange of goods 
with these colonies that has made the foreign trade of Great Britain 
nearly twice that of any other nation. Next to her colonies Great 
Britain's greatest trade is with the United States. 

Some of the reasons why this little island should own more 
vessels than any other nation have already appeared. In fishing, 
exploring, and making settlements, a large number of ships have 
been needed; and for the proper defense of her widely distributed 
colonies many warships have been required. Another reason for so 
large a navy is the fact that the British Isles are cut off from all 





















344 


EUROPE 


other nations by water. They must, therefore, rely rather upon 
warships for defense than upon a standing army. 

Further than this, the British are actually forced to own many 
ships. Here are over forty million people living on two small islands, 
from the soil of which it is impossible to obtain the necessary food. 
They must send ships away for their flour, meat, sugar, coffee, etc.; 
and they must send abroad for much of their raw material for manu¬ 
facture. Also, in order to pay for the raw materials and food, their 
manufactured goods must be shipped to all parts of the world ; 
otherwise their extensive manufacturing would be impossible. 

Idiese facts, coupled with the remarkable energy of the British, 
are the principal reasons why the United Kingdom greatly surpasses 
all other nations in the number of her warships and merchant vessels. 

Government. 1 he governmentof the United Kingdom is a limited 
monarchy, the present ruler being King Edward VII. We know 
that in the United States our general laws are made at Washington 
by a Congress composed of a Senate and a House of Representatives. 
In the United Kingdom the law-making body corresponding to this 
is called Parliament. It is likewise composed of two bodies, the 
House of Lords and the House of Commons. 

The House of Lords is made up of men with inherited titles who 
are not elected by the people. In former times the Lords were so 
poweiful that the people had little control of the government; but for 
many generations their power has been restricted, and the House of Com¬ 
mons, whose members are elected by popular vote, is now by far tlie more 
important. Through them the people are able to make their own laws, 
and the government is therefore one of great freedom. 


While the sovereign is nominally the executive, like our President, 
the execution of laws is really in charge of a Cabinet composed of a Prime 
Minister and several other Ministers, who are responsible to the House of 
Commons for their actions. If the Ministers lose the support of the 
House, they are obliged to resign; and then others are appointed who will 
carry out the wishes of the people. 


Review Questions. — (1) Give the location and area of the British Isles. 
(2) What noteworthy facts about their importance ? (3) What about the inhabit¬ 
ants . (4) Tell about their climate. (5) Their physiography. (6) The effects 

th ® '‘^ eet - ( 7 ) The coast Une. (8) Why is so much of the land in grass ? 
(!)) Jell about the live stock. (10) What crops cannot be raised? Why? 
(11) What are the principal 'farm products? (12) What disadvantage do the 
people suffer m regard to food supply? (13) Give the principal facts about the 
fishing industry. (14) What metals are found in small quantities? (15) How 


SUGGESTIONS 


34 5 


about the abundance of coal and iron ore? (16) Locate the chief coal fields in 
Great Britain. (17) Tell about the iron ore in Great Britain. (18) Name other 
important mineral products. (19) Give reasons for the development of textile 
manufacturing in Great Britain. (-0) W hat cities are especially noted for the 
manufacture of woolen goods? (21) For cotton? (22) 4'ell about the manufac¬ 
ture of iron and steel goods. (28) What about the farm products of Ireland? 
What about minerals there? (24) About manufacturing? (25) What is used 
for fuel? (26) Tell about the linen industry of Ireland. (27) About the popu¬ 
lation. (28) Name and locate the cities in Great Britain that are distinguished 
for manufacturing. (29) Name and locate the principal coast cities. (80) Tell 
about London: its location, principal kinds of business, etc. (81) What noted 
places are near by ? (32) Tell about each of the other cities mentioned. Locate 

each. (33) Give some reasons why the British Isles have rrtore colonies than any 
other country. (34) Why more foreign trade? (35) Why the greatest number 
of vessels? (36) Tell about their government. 


Suggestions. — (1) On a sketch map of Great Britain mark the position of 
the highlands and lowlands. (2) Considering the prevailing winds, which side of 
the great cities must be most free from smoke? (3) Why are sheep able to eat 
shorter grass than cattle? (4) Make a list of goods made out of flax, and place 
samples in the school cabinet. (5) Write a paper telling in what ways the people 
of the British Isles and the United States depend on one another. (6) State ways 
in which New England and Great Britain resemble each other. (7) What names 
of British cities have you met in your study of the United States? In what por¬ 
tion of the United States are they? (8) Collect pictures of scenes in the British 
Isles. (9) What books have you read which describe the scenery or the people of 
these islands ? (10) Find out other facts about the large steamships. (11) What 

advantages do you see in the fact that the British Isles are near the continent, yet 
separated by water ? (12) Read in George Eliot’s “ Silas Marner ” for a description 

of old-fashioned manufacturing by hand looms. (13) Also in “John Halifax, 
Gentleman,” for an account of the introduction of steam into the factories. 
(14) Read Gray’s “ Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard.” (15) Read Scott’s 
“ Kenilworth.” (16) Find out some facts about Queen Victoria. (17) What do 
you know about Shakespeare? 

For References to books and articles, see Teacher s Book. 


III. THE NETHERLANDS AND BELGIUM 


Map Questions (Fig. 337). — (1) Compare the area of the Netherlands with 
that of Belgium ; with that of Great Britain. (2*) Compare the coast lines of the 
Netherlands and Belgium. (3) What large river crosses the Netherlands? 
1 hrough what countries does it pass ? (4) What countries border the Nether¬ 
lands ? (5) Belgium ? (6) Make an outline map of these two countries. 


The Netherlands (Holland) 



Zuider . 


(•UUl-'Zccllv 

loslfcrciain' 


.otterilrffij 


A utwerp u M ^ 
SEA LESS Than 20 FT. DEEP 
FROM 35 FEET ABOVE TO 
20 FEET BELOW SEA LEVEL 

LESS THAN 35 FT.ABOVE SEA LEVEL 
OVER 35 FEET' ' 


Physiography.—Figure 329 shows the Netherlands to be a pe¬ 
culiar country. The greater portion is very low, and some parts 
are as much as fifteen feet below sea level. In fact, if protection 

against sea and river were not 
provided, about one half of the 
surface would be occasionally or 
permanently under water. This 
explains why the country, some¬ 
times called Holland, is more com¬ 
monly known as the Netherlands, 
a word meaning low country. 

The Rhine has brought much of 
the soil; some of it, no doubt, all the 
way from the Alps. A large part 
of the country is, in fact, a delta of 
sand and clay built by the Rhine, 
and it is so low and level that over 
much of the surface the only notable 
elevations are either sand dunes, 
thrown up by the wind, or glacial 
moraines of sand and gravel. In 
Figure 306 notice how far the ice 
sheet advanced m this section. Hard rocks are found only in the 

eastern and southeastern parts, where the highest point is a little over a 
thousand feet. 


Fig. 329. 

Map to show the portion of the Netherlands 
that is below sea level. 


In so level a country there can be little water power; and little 
mineral wealth may be expected in the soft clays and sands. Some 
iron is found in the bogs, which are extensive, and a small amount 

346 
















































NETHERLA NDS 347 

of coal is mined in the. extreme southeast. Under the circumstances, 
is there promise of much manufacturing? 

Owing to all these disadvantages the Netherlands might seem to 
be incapable of supporting a large population. Ne vert lieless, that 
country has about two thirds as many inhabitants as the remarkably 
productive state of New York, which is four times as large. 

People and Government. — Perhaps the leading explanation of this 
prosperity is the high character of the Dutch people, as the Nether- 
landers are called. For centuries they have felt an intense love for 
civil and religious liberty; but, being a small nation, they have 
suffered many hardships in attempting to establish independence and 



Fig. 330. 

A farm scene on the plains of Holland. 

tolerant laws. At one time they were under German control; later 
they came under the cruel rule of Spain; but finally they obtained 
their independence, and their form of government is now a limited 
monarchy. 

While their belief in freedom brought them untold suffering, it was a 
cause of progress as well. It was to Holland that the Pilgrims first fled 
when religious persecutions drove them from England; and from time to 
time large numbers of Huguenots, Germans, and others found refuge 
there. Their settlement in the Netherlands had a great influence on the 
intelligence with which Dutch industries were developed. 

Agriculture. — Agriculture, including grazing, is the principal 
industry of the kingdom, although, largely on account of swamps 




348 


EUROPE 



tin(1 Scind dunes, a fifth of its area is waste land. The principal 
farm products are grains, such as rye, oats, wheat, barley, and 
buckwheat; also potatoes, sugar beets, beans, peas, and flax. More 
land is devoted to pasturage (Fig. 330) than to these crops, partly 
because much of the higher land is too sandy for cultivation, and 
partly because the moisture in the lowlands aids in the growth of excel¬ 
lent grass. Cattle, hogs, sheep, and horses are raised in great num¬ 
bers; and quantities of but¬ 
ter and cheese are made. 


Fig. 331. 


There is, of course, good 
reason why the Dutch have 
been willing to endure the 
labor and danger involved 
in reclaiming large tracts of 
land from the sea.- As the 
population increased, and the 
need of new farm land grew, 
it was found possible to keep 
the high tides and rivers 
from overflowing the salt 
marshes and flood plains. 
In this way the people have 
added large areas of fertile 
land, and have also been en¬ 
couraged to undertake the 
even more difficult task of 
reclaiming the shallow sea- 
bottom. 


A Dutch windmill. Such drainage began in 

St-*? T T* ** 11 h “ *XEZZS£iZ 

The ditches for draining the land really form canals, which, by means 
of then embankments, inclose houses, gardens, and fields, much as fences 
oi stone walls inclose houses and gardens in other countries. They are 
so numerous that they extend over the lowlands in a great network. 

Manufacturing. _ Although there is very little coal or water 
powei m the kingdom, there is an abundance of coal near by in 
Belgium, Germany, and England. Accordingly, since the people 
lequne quantities of cloth, shoes, machinery, etc., they import coal 
and many necessary raw materials in order to manufacture for 
themselves. 1 he strangers who fled to the Netherlands to escape 







NETHERLANDS 


349 


persecution did much toward developing early manufacturing, and 
this industry now ranks next in importance to agriculture. 

Commerce. — Commerce is highly developed for several reasons. 
In the first place, the ditches, built primarily for purposes of drainage, 
are also valuable as canals; and these, together with the rivers, make 
transportation by water very easy to all sections of the country. 
The flat-topped dikes also make excellent wagon roads ; and the 
level nature of the land renders the construction of tramways and 
railways a simple matter. Many of the railways connect directly 
with the European trunk lines. 

In the second place, the position of Holland gives her a distinct 
commercial advantage. The Netherlands lie directly in the path of 



Fig. 332. 

A canal in Amsterdam. Notice the peculiar fronts of the Dutch houses. 


entrance to northern Europe, and the country is crossed by the 
Rhine River, which is navigable for a long distance into Germany. 
Therefore much of the American and British trade with central 
Europe is carried on through Holland. 

Colonies. —The Dutch colonies (Fig. 354) furnish a third reason for an 
extensive development of commerce. Since the very earliest times the 
Dutch have been in close contact with the salt water. Not only have they 
battled with the sea in reclaiming land, hut to visit some of their near 















350 


EUROPE 


neighbors they have been obliged to cross it. Moreover, both the Zuider 
Zee and the North Sea, near at hand, contain many food fish; and this 
fact has led to development of the fisheries, one of the leading industries 
of the country. 

The men have therefore become expert sailors ; and when discoveries 
of new lands were made, the Dutch sailors naturally shared in the 
explorations and established colonies. 

The attempt of the Dutch to colonize our Hudson valley was thwarted 
by the English; but Holland retains possession of other important regions. 
Of these, Dutch Guiana in South America has already been mentioned 
(p.300); but the most important are Java and several other East India 
islands. The manufacture of raw products from the colonies constitutes 
one of the principal industries of the coast cities. 

The possession of these colonies, Holland’s location, her water and rail 
connections with other countries, and her many canals and excellent roads, 
make the transportation of goods an important industry. 

Cities. — Amsterdam and Rotterdam are the two ’ principal 
commercial centers. The former, the largest city in the Netherlands, 
is about the size of Baltimore. It is connected with the ocean by 
canal, and is noted for its university and museums, as well as its 
shipping, manufacturing, and diamond cutting. The rulers of Hol¬ 
land are crowned at Amsterdam, the capital, although the royal family 
resides at The Hague, where the government buildings are situated. 

Rotterdam, next to Amsterdam in size, is the great seaport of 
the Netherlands. Its location near the mouth of the Rhine makes 
it one of the principal ports for the interior of the continent, and 
explains why it is the European terminus for some of the great 
steamship lines from New York and other parts of the world. 


Belgium 

Physiography. —The surface of Belgium forcibly recalls that of 
I lolland. The land is low and flat in the northern and western parts, 
and gradually rises and grows more rolling toward the south and east. 

However, the highest point in Belgium (2230 feet) is more than 
twice that in the Netherlands. Instead of being caused by glacial 
moraines and sand dunes, this highland is a mountainous region, 
formed by upheaval of the earth’s crust (Fig. 333). The weathering 
of ages, which has worn these mountains so low, lias revealed valu¬ 
able mineral deposits, especially coal and iron, which fortunately 
occur near together, as in England. Lead, zinc, and silver are also 
obtained. 


BELGIUM 


351 



Belgium, therefore, possesses agricultural advantages similar to 
those of Holland, while the minerals secure opportunities for manu¬ 
facturing far superior to those of the Dutch. These facts help to 
explain why, although Belgium is even smaller than Holland, its 
population is one fourth larger, or about 0,o00,000. How does that 
compare with the population of New York state ? Indeed, the small 
country of Belgium is one of the most densely populated regions on 
the earth. 1 igure out the number of inhabitants per square mile 
and compare it with the number in New York, or in your own state. 

People and Government. — Like the Dutch, the* Belgians have 
endured untold sufferings in their long struggle for independence. 
1 heir country has been, to some extent, a battlefield for the larger 
countries or powers of Europe; for example, the battle of Waterloo , 


Fig. 333. 

A view in the hilly section of southern Belgium. 

I 

by which the career of Napoleon Bonaparte was ended, was fought 
there in 1815. Since 1830, however, the Belgians have been inde¬ 
pendent. Their form of government is a limited monarchy. 


The intelligence of the Belgians is of the highest order. Even during 
the Middle Ages their woolen manufactures were the best developed in 
Europe, and at various times the kings of England have induced Belgian 













352 


EUROPE 


artisans to move to England for the purpose of improving the factory 
work. Since the great nations of Europe have declared Belgium neutral 
territory, thus prohibiting further fighting there, the people have found it 
necessary to keep only a small standing army, and have devoted them- 

se ves to the industries. As a result, Belgium has enjoyed a wonderful 
industrial growth. 


Agriculture. A very small part of Belgium is below sea level; 
but, as in the Netherlands, much of the country is so flat and fertile 
t nit a view on the Belgian plain would closely resemble that in Fig- 
nie 330. Moie than half the inhabitants are engaged in agriculture, 
the chief products, besides live stock, being grain, flax, hemp, fruit, 
and sugar beets. Among the farm animals, the Flemish 1 horses are 
especially noted for their great size and strength. 


TTnitp 1 ^^ 6 ! 81 ^ 111 ^ 110 ^ °i f r ming forms a strikin S contrast to that in the 
U ited States; tor instead of ranging from one hundred to several thou¬ 
sand acres, farms in Belgium usually 
contain not more than two or three 
acres. To a large extent, spading 
takes the place of plowing, and 
such hand labor, guided by the ex¬ 
perience of many generations, secures 
large^ yields of the best quality, 
blemish flax is the best m the world. 
In spite of such careful cultivation of 
the soil much food has to be imported, 
as in Great Britain. 


Mining and Manufacturing. — 

Quite distinct from the level 
northern plain, close set with 
farms and towns, is the hilly 
region of the southern angle, cov¬ 
ered with forests and rich in 



Fig. 334. 

A dog team in Belgium. 


_• i T» r i etna ricn m 

minerals. More than one hundred thousand men are engaged in min¬ 
ing and coal and coke are among the leading exports. Around the 
northwest slope of the hilly region is located one of the world’s 
busiest industrial regions. As in England, the three important 
kinds of manufacturing are cotton, wool, and iron and steel. 

y=- 




BELGIUM 


353 


Linen and glass are also made. But the country is so small, and 
there are so many water ways and railways, —as in the Netherlands, 
— that coal is transported cheaply to all sections. Manufacturing, 
therefore, is well distributed, although the coal comes from the south. 

Commerce. By its position Belgium secures many of the 
advantages that Holland enjoys; that is, it is a gateway to and 
from the interior of Europe. To be sure, its coast line is only 
about forty miles in length and the water there is shallow; but 
Antw bKP has an excellent harbor. JLhere is no large river like 
the Khine in Holland, but two smaller streams, rising in France, 




?5 MfiL 


^ 1 ? 1 




rl-L 'evffiSmmm 

5?5jjrB*5 

H ||-n| 

■ S 1,£ 


Fig. 335. 


A view in Ghent. Notice the peculiar architecture of the houses. 


are navigable for some distance. There is also an extensive 
system of canals. Besides these water ways, Belgium has more 
miles of railway, for its size, than any other country; and the rail¬ 
ways are closely connected with the large trunk lines. For these 
reasons transportation of goods is one of the leading industries in 
Belgium. 

While the Belgians do not possess such valuable colonies as the Dutch, 
they have been prominent in African exploration. It was the Belgian 











354 


EUROPE 


king who sent Stanley to Africa, and the King of Belgium is sovereign of 
Kongo State. 

Cities. — Brussels, the capital and largest city, situated in the 
heart of the kingdom, is about the size of Boston. The name 
Brussels carpets suggests one of its industries; but carriage and lace 
making are at present among its most important kinds of manufac¬ 
ture. It is an intellectual as well as a political and commercial 
center, having numerous picture galleries, museums, and schools. 

Antwerp, next in size, is situated about sixty miles from the 
sea, on a small river. Some of the great steamship lines from New 
York have their European terminus there, and the port is one of the 
most important in Europe. The leading kinds of manufacturing 
are sugar refining, distilling, lace making, and shipbuilding. 

Many other cities are distinguished for manufacturing. The largest 
are Liege, the “ Birmingham of Belgium,” engaged in the manufacture 
of firearms, cutlery, glass, and various kinds of machinery; and Ghent 
(Fig. 335), noted for linen and cotton goods, and for machinery. 

% 

Review Questions.— The Netherlands. — (1) Tell about the physiography 
of Holland. (2) What are the principal mineral products ? (3) How does Hol¬ 

land compare with New York in size and population? (4) Tell about the people ; 
the government; agriculture. (5) State reasons for reclaiming the land. (6) What 
about manufacturing ? (7) Give three reasons for the extensive development of 

Dutch commerce. (8) How have the Dutch come to have several important colo¬ 
nies? (9) Name the principal colonies. (10) Tell about the chief cities. 

Belgium. — (11) Compare Belgium with Holland as to physiography. 
(12) Fell about the importance of Belgium ; its people and government; its agri¬ 
culture ; its mining and manufacturing. (13) What reasons are there for & its 
important commerce ? 

Suggestions. — The Netherlands. — (1) Why are the winds likely to blow 
with special force and regularity across Holland? (2) Why is this fact of value 
to the Dutch l (3) What effect must the winds have upon the rank vapors that 
rise from the damp soil? (4) What do you know about the flower gardens of 
the Dutch ? (5) Have you seen any Dutch pottery, especially Delft wares ? 

(3) Why did not the Pilgrims remain in Holland instead of coming to America? 
(7) Why should not Rotterdam be as large a city as New York? (8) Find out 
about the Peace Conference of 1899 at The Hague. (9) What reasons are there 
for selecting a small country like Holland for this purpose, and for making treaties 
between nations which have been at war? 

Belgium. — (10) There are greater Extremes of temperature in Belgium than 
in England. Why? (11) Find out some facts about the battle of Waterloo. 
(12) Give several reasons for spading instead of plowing land. (13) Examine a 
piece of lace. From what material is lace manufactured, and how is the work done ? 

For References, see Teacher's Book. 


TV. FRANCE 


(For Map Questions, see Map, Fig. 337.) 


People and Government.— The early inhabitants of France, called 
Gauls, were conquered by the Romans, who taught them their lan¬ 
guage and many of their customs. After the fall of Rome, France 
was divided into independent kingdoms, which were often at war 
with one another or with neighboring countries. 



The situation of France has, however, tended to bring the king¬ 
doms together; for the country is inclosed on two sides by the sea, 
and elsewhere, in large 
part, by mountains. No¬ 
tice how completely the 
Pyrenees separate France 
from Spain; and what a 
barrier the lofty Alps form 
along the Italian and Swiss 
boundaries. Even north 
of the Alps, a part of the 
boundary is formed by 
highlands, While the in¬ 
habitants were thus partly 
protected from invasion, 
there were few barriers 
within France itself that kept- them apart. It was not difficult, 
therefore, to bring them under one rule. At present France has a 
republican form of government. 


Fig. 336. 

A valley on the French side of the Pyrenees. 


Monaco in the southeast and Andorra in the Pyrenees (p. 365) are the 
only exceptions. The principality of Monaco, only eight square miles in 
area, is a noted winter resort because of the fine climate. 


Physiography and Climate. — As we have seen, the chief high¬ 
lands of France are in the south and southeast. Among these high- 

o o 

lands the loftiest are the Alps, whose highest peak, Mt. Blanc 

355 


25—A O 





356 


EUROPE 


(15,781 feet), is in France. Had the mountains stretched along the 
western coast, the history of France would have been very different. 
As it is, the prevailing westerlies are allowed to distribute their 
rain somewhat evenly over the country, supplying all sections with 
an abundance of moisture for agriculture. 

Ihe position of the highlands is of great importance for commerce 
as well as for farming. Fully three fourths of France is a compara¬ 
tively level plain sloping westward from the low central plateau, 
which rises steeply as the western wall of the long Rhone valley. 
All but one of the large rivers rise in this plateau, and flow gently 
down its slope to the Atlantic. Thus navigation is possible far into 
the country. Locate and name the three largest rivers. How does 
the Rhone differ from the other two ? 

As might be expected, the summers are warmer than in England, 
since France lies almost entirely south of that country and is less 
under the influence of the ocean. The southeastern section, though 
as far north as Boston, has a semi-tropical climate (Fig. 340), 
owing to the presence of the warm Mediterranean waters and to 
the protection from cold north winds afforded by the Alps (pp. 322 
and 323). 

Agriculture.— France is primarily a farming country, and nearly 
half the people devote their energies to agriculture, including graz- 
ing. The same grains are raised as in England. What are they ? 

(p. o23.) W heat is the most important, and more of this grain is 
produced than in any other European country excepting Russia. Yet 
France raises only about half as much wheat as the United States, 
and not nearly enough for the needs of her people. Grapes, not 
important in the British Isles, thrive in the warmer climate of central 
and southern France. 

Grapes form the most valuable of all French crops, and more are 
raised in France than in any other country of the world. This fruit 
although capable of enduring severe cold, requires a warm summer. The 
distribution of the vineyards, therefore, shows forcibly the difference 
between the climates of England and France. Grapes do not mature well 
in northern France, but they flourish in the warm valleys from the Loire 
southward. 

As in othei countries, the highlands, as a rule, are capable of 
little cultivation and are usually given over to grazing. Give exam¬ 
ples from other countries. As in England, too, there are broad 
tracts of lowland which are better adapted to the production of 


DO 


10 



rT r' 

^ ll «ensto«- n 
.o'* 


I st.ae° 

50 * 7 r /- A jy T 


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y o it t n 


Tire 


NET HE 
< no 
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Xl 1(l Hague, 

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[.eel^XBrunW^* 
, c I • Munster \ 


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C^erboji 
CHAMNEL is% 




I I Sj_ 

WESTERN EUROPE 

Scale of Miles 
0 100 200 
. , , , , J_I_I 

Cities with over 1,000,000-^ €*1*18 

Cities with 200,000 to 1,000,0l)6~ Lisbon 
if Cities with 100,000 to 200,000 -The Hague 

Smaller Places-- Pieppo 

Capitals with less than 100,000-B6rfl© 

Capitals of Countries @ Other Places • 


Renne,*^^ 
^SC^tazai 


w . - E 
'V^ .^7>tutVt;nr< 

\ \unr)N S) rossbarg ^ 

L] \ 

^ , piViVbau 5 «n 


• 7a 


Dijon • / N 


\ II 


P 


F (r A v nNc j .E J'Xu.e-., Lb 

L [ ^ \ c I ^ jer ^r L( i'^ _ 

Limoges ) £ j ^KP *Slf 1 ** * lfc, ,V » 

A d’Anvergne.,'' St.r.liciinr l | Ti«»■'>—^>^-'15 

A I_.IVrizut'UX__ .L^-+-VM Uessandrta 

^ J ) ‘ 1 1 At. V 

.?{ ( 

" > . J Kinds' 


X\fC\ 

( Gulf of Toulon 
iXDOEBA I 

i F.nnii 


CORSICA 
(To France )| 
Ajaccio 




Longitude 5 3 West from Greenwich 0° 


Fig. 337. 


Map Questions: France. — (1) France is the nearest country to the British 
Isles. Estimate the distance. (2) Compare the two countries as to area. (3) As 
to population. (4) What waters border France? (5) What countries? (<>) In 
what respects is its position favorable to commerce ? (7).What do you observe about 

the general direction of the rivers ? (8) Locate the island of Corsica, a part of France. 









































CO 

CO 

CO 


o 


To show Paris and surrounding country. Notice how closely the railways follow the stream valleys. Why should they? 






























FRANCE 


357 


grass than to other crops. These facts explain why there are more 
than thirteen million cattle and twenty-one million sheep in France. 
What does that signify in regard to manufacturing ? 

Minerals. — France is quite inferior to the British Isles in its min¬ 
eral products. Coal is the most valuable mineral; but while Great 
Britain, after supplying her many factories, exports a large amount 
of coal, France has to import some. The principal coal beds, from 
which more than half the output comes, lie close to Belgium. They 
are, in fact, a continuation 
of the deposits that were 
found to be so plentiful in 
that country. . The other 
beds are small and scat¬ 
tered, but the best of 
them lie near the center of 
the country, not far from 
St. Etienne. Of what 
advantage is this loca¬ 
tion ? 


The quantity of iron pro¬ 
duced is small and comes 
mainlv from the northeast, 
near the coal fields. Fine 
clays for porcelain abound 
in central France, and build¬ 
ing stones are quarried in 
nearly every part. 

t A view in central southern France (Monts d’Au- 

Manuiacturing. 1 ll vergne oil tlie map). This is a region of extinct 

Spite of the limited supply volcanoes, and the church is built upon a steep 

f. r , -r-, . , lava hill, 

ot fuel, b ranee is a great 

manufacturing nation. Besides silk and wine, in the production of 
which that country is the leading nation of the world, there is ex¬ 
tensive manufacturing of metal, cotton, and woolen goods. 

The Frenchman lias a peculiar appreciation of what is graceful, 
delicate, and elegant. This is illustrated by the fact that our fashions 
in dress originate in France ; and a skirt, a pair of gloves, or a bonnet from 
Paris is expected to be a trifle more desirable than one bought elsewhere. 

Wool and Cotton Manufactures. —The northern part of France is 
the section especially noted for the woolen industry. Here coal is 



Fig. 339. 






358 


EUROPE 


most easily obtained; and large numbers of sheep are raised on the 
hills and plains near by. Besides this, foreign wool from Argen¬ 
tina and Australia is easily imported at Havre and at the Belgian 
port of Antwerp. Remembering that the goods turned out — as 
hosiery, carpets, and underclothing — are of high grade, and such 
as wealthy people wish, we see tliat this location, between the 
two wealthiest capitals of the world, is especially advantageous. 
Woolen cloths are, next to silk goods, the most important French 
export to Great Britain. 

Cotton manufacturing — mainly for the home market, as indi¬ 
cated above — is also extensively developed near the coal fields of 



Fig. 340. 


A street scene in Nice (near Monaco), showing the nature of the vegetation in that warm 
climate. Find out whether Nice is north or south of your home. 

not them h ranee. An important reason for such work at this point 
is the ease with which American cotton may be imported; and this 
explains why Rouen on the Seine is a prominent center for cotton 
goods, iheie ate also cotton factories in eastern France, where 
water power is used instead of steam power. Why should there be 
water power in that section ? 

Silk Manufacturing. — Because the climate and soil of the Rhone 
valley are adapted to the mulberry tree, and because coal mines 
are near by, this section is a great silk manufacturing region. 
Lyon is the center, and St. Etienne and Paris are noted for 
.this industry. 








FRANCE 


359 


Ihc traveler in the It hone valley sees grove after grove of mulberry 
tiees, carefully cared for in order to supply an abundance of leaves for the 
silkworm to eat in summer. 

• The silkworm moth, at the end of the caterpillar stage, weaves a 
cocoon about itself. The material of which the cocoon is composed is a 
thread, about two miles in length, which must be very carefully unwound. 
The single strand is such extremely fine silk that, in order to make a fiber 
strong enough for spinning and weaving, it is united with several others. 

hince the worms are reared under cover, the silk industry may be 
carried on in any climate well adapted to the mulberry tree. It is pos¬ 
sible, therefore, to make raw silk in many parts of the world; but the 
feeding of the worms and the transformation of the cocoons into silk for 
the market require much labor, care, and skill. On that account silk pro¬ 
duction is chiefly confined to those parts of the world where laborers will 
accept low wages, and where, owing to generations of such work, habits 
of watchfulness and care have been developed. China accordingly pro¬ 
duces the greatest amount of raw silk; but France, in the midst of the 
civilized world, where the market for silk goods is greatest, also produces 
a large quantity and is the leading country for the manufacture of silk. 
Make as long a'list of silk goods as you can. 

Other Manufactures. — The extensive cultivation of grapes has 
been mentioned. Much of the wine made from them is consumed 



Fig. 341. 


A farm scene in southern central France. The mountain peak is an extinct volcano, one . 

of the Monts d’Auvergne (Figs. 337 and 339). 





360 


EUROPE 


at home, for in France even the day laborer drinks wine at his 
meals in place of water. An enormous amount of wine is also 
shipped abroad. The manufacture of steel goods is important in 
some places, but to no such extent as in Great Britain. Other 

kinds of manufacturing are 
mentioned under the cities. 

Paris. — Paris, the capi¬ 
tal of France, is the largest 
city on the continent of 
Europe and the third largest 
in the world. It numbers 
more than 2,500,000 in¬ 
ha b i t a n t s. 

Location (Fig. 338). — 

I here is a definite reason for 
the exact site ; for. an island 
in the Seine at that point 
made the river easier to 
biidge o\ er, while at the same time it aided in defense. Aside 
from that, the Seine, having a slower current than the Rhone, and 
being less subject to overflows than the Loire, is more easily navi¬ 
gable than any other river in France. Its upper tributaries bring it 




Fig. 343. 

A view looking over Paris, with the Seine in the center of the picture. 



















FRANCE 


361 


into close touch with eastern France; and, by the aid of canals, 
there is water connection with the Loire and Saone, and with the 
Rhine in Germany. Furthermore, Paris is situated on the main 
trade route from the Mediterranean to northern and central France, 
which follows the Rhone, the Saone and the Seine. In addition, 
Paris is located in the midst of the most fertile portion of the country, 
and not very far from several other densely populated countries. For 
these several reasons it has always been the principal French city. 

Paris as an Art Center. — Reference has already been made to 
the appreciation of grace and elegance characteristic of the French 



Fontainebleau, a beautiful wooded park south of Paris. 


people. Napoleon and other rulers collected art treasures from 
various nations, and founded collections and schools which have made 
Paris famous. The superiority of this city in that respect is recog¬ 
nized in America by the large number of men and women who go 
there every year for the study of art. It is not strange, therefore, 
that Paris should be distinguished the world over for its beauty as a 
city. The wide streets, the beautiful parks with their fountains and 
statues, and the tine public buildings and old royal palaces, are won¬ 
derfully attractive. Even the dwelling houses are in harmony, for it 
is required by law that new buildings must harmonize with those 
near by. Therefore one seldom sees an unattractive house in Paris. 


One of the old palaces, known as The Louvre, is the most noted art 
gallery in the world. It contains thousands of works of art. 

Among the many interesting suburbs of Paris is Ykrsaillks, where 
there is another palace that was erected in the days of royalty. It is now 
mainly used as a museum, and scores of the large rooms are decorated 











362 


EUBOPE 


w ^ ^ ie fi nes ^ of paintings. It is among such treasures that the students 
of art spend much of their time; and it is partly because of the beautiful 
surroundings that many foreigners reside permanently in Paris. 

Manufactures of Paris. — Like other great cities, Paris has too many 
industries to be specially identified with any particular one. Yet the 
superior taste of the Parisians has led them to pay especial attention to 
the manufacture of articles which combine utility with beauty, such as 
jewelry, furniture, gloves, fashionable shoes, etc. The Sevres porcelain 
is made m the suburbs of Paris, and both this and the Limoges ware, 
.manufactured at Limoges, are celebrated for their beauty. 

Commerce of Paris. — Although so far inland, Paris ships more 
goods by water than any other French city. The extensive canal 
connections have already been mentioned (p. 361). Vast sums have 
been spent in dredging the lower Seine, so that the depth of water 
between Rouen and Paris now exceeds ten feet. Small vessels can 
pioceed directly to Paris, but larger ships transfer their goods at 
Havre and Rouen. Besides this, the chief railways of France 
radiate in all directions from Paris (Fig. 338). All together, there- 

foie, laris is the political, artistic, manufacturing, and commercial 
center of France. 

Other Cities. Havre, which is almost as busy a harbor as Mar¬ 
seille, has an extensive trade in coffee from Brazil, and in wheat 
and other materials from the United States. Another important 
port is Bordeaux, on the Garonne River, in the midst of a fertile 
grape-raising district. It is the chief port for the export of French 
wines. Locate the cities previously named and tell for what each 

is important. Note especially Lyon, the center of the great silk 
industry of France. 

The leading seaport of France on the Mediterranean is Mar¬ 
seille, located near the mouth of the Rhone. The delta of the Rhone 
is too marshy for a city, and Marseille occupies the nearest point 
where there is a good harbor and where other conditions are favorable 
for a town. For many centuries the Rhone valley was the principal 
gateway from the Mediterranean to much of Europe. One route leads 
to the Seine valley, and thence to Paris (p. 361), northern France 
and Belgium. Another enters Switzerland through Lake Geneva' 
out of which the Rhone flows ; and still a third route leads, through 
an opening m the mountains, into the Rhine valley and Germany. 

Commerce of France. — Notwithstanding tlie great amount of 
internal commerce on the numerous rivers, canals, and railways 
and notwithstanding the extensive foreign trade, France is not 


FRANCE 


363 


a great maritime nation like the United Kingdom. In fact, her 
merchant marine is only one tenth as large as that of the British 
Isles and three fifths that of Norway. This is not entirely because 
of lack of acquaintance with the sea, for there are more French than 
British fishermen. The small number of good harbors, and the fre¬ 
quent and destructive wars during the last century, are among the 
reasons why France depends so largely upon other nations, as upon 
British and Norwegians, for vessels to carry her goods. Why is it 
safer for her to be thus dependent than for Great Britain? 

Colonies (Fig. 354). — On the other hand, France has been extensively 
engaged in exploration. You will remember that the French formerly 
had extensive possessions in North America. Where were they ? Where 
are her present possessions in the New World ? 

In Asia, France holds a part of Indo-China and a very small bit of 
India; and she has numerous islands in different portions of the world 
(Fig. 354). But her most important colonies are in Africa, as follows: 

(1) Algeria and Tunis, across the Mediterranean; (2) a vast area south of 
these countries, including a large part of the Sahara Desert, the Sudan, 
the upper Niger, and the country north of the Kongo River; and (3) the 
large island of Madagascar, east of southern Africa. 

Review Questions.— (1) Tell about the early inhabitants; (2) the influence 
of the boundary line for unity; (4) the government; (4) the physiography and 
climate. (5) What are the principal farm products ? (6) Which of these have 

been found in Great Britain? (7) Which have not been found there? Why? 
(8) Tell about the mineral products. (9) Give reasons for the extensive manu¬ 
facturing. (10) Tell about the woolen manufactures. (11) Cotton manufactures. 
(12) Tell about silk and silk manufacturing. (18) What about other manufac¬ 
tures? (II) Tell about Paris; its size; location; artistic attractions; manufactures; 
commerce. (15) Tell about: (a) Havre, (/;) Bordeaux, (c) Lyon. (1(5) What are 
the reasons for the location of Marseille? For what is it important? (17) What 
is there peculiar about the commerce of France ? (18) Tell about the colonies. 

Suggestions. — (1) What is the name of the present President of France? 

(2) Give reasons why one river, as the Loire, might be much more subject to over¬ 

flows than another, as the Seine. (3) Examine Figure 306 to see if the glacier 
reached into any part of France during the Glacial Period. (4) Raise a silkworm 
from the egg. (5) Examine a cocoon and see if you can unravel some of its thread. 
(6) Also unravel a piece of silk goods and examine the threads. (7) N\ hat influ¬ 
ence on the commerce of Marseille has the construction of railway tunnels through 
the Alps probably had? (8) The construction of the Suez Canal ? Why ? (9) See 

if you can find any porcelain ware from Sevres or Limoges. (19) IN hat changes 
might be brought about in your locality if the people there prided themselves 
greatly on the beauty of the streets, houses, etc., as the Parisians do? (11) IN hat 
picturesof fine statuary have you seen? (12) Find the names of some of the great 
French painters. 

For References, see Teacher's Rook. 


V. SPAIN AND PORTUGAL 

' v 

Mad Questions (Fig. 337). — (1) What other cities in the world are in 
about the same latitude as Madrid? (2) Compare the area of the Spanish penin¬ 
sula with that of France (Appendix, p ii). (3) Compare the populations (Ap¬ 
pendix, p. ii). (4) Compare the directions taken by the rivers. (5) Judging 
from the map, what would you expect as to the number of good harbors? 
(6) What has been stated about the temperature and rainfall in Spain? (pp. 321 
and 323.) (7) What islands in the Mediterranean Sea belong to Spain? 

People and Government. — Spain and Portugal at one time had 
much the same rank among nations as is now held hy Great Britain. 
Name countries that they controlled. Mention some noted Spanish 
and Portuguese explorers. Now, however, both Spain and Portugal 
are classed among the weaker nations of Europe. 

The mountainous character of the peninsula has been one impor¬ 
tant cause of the decline of Spain and Portugal. The various races 



Fig. 345. 


The Alhambra, one of the last strongholds of the Moors, —Mohammedans who once 

conquered and occupied Spain. 

on the peninsula, cut off from one another by table-lands and moun¬ 
tain ranges, have never been fairly blended into one people. For 
centuries they were divided into small, independent kingdoms having 
different languages. Just before the discovery of America, however, 

364 









SPAIN AND PORTUGAL 


365 


most of these states were brought under one rule by the marriage of 
Ferdinand and Isabella ; and later even Portugal was joined to Spain. 

Put Portugal, which is partly separated from Spain by deep 
gorges and canyons, soon broke away. Also Andorra , a tiny 
country in the Pyrenees, was never fully conquered and is still 
independent; and the union of some of the others has been by 
force rather than by choice. At present the parts of Spain are 
held together under a limited monarchy, and the same is true of 
Portugal. 

Physiography and Climate.—The key to many important facts 
about Spain and Portugal is found in the extensive elevation of the 
land. On the northern boundary stand the Pyrenees, continued on 
the west by the Cantabrian Mountains, while in the extreme south 
are the lofty Sierra Nevada ranges. Between these two systems is 
a broad plateau, from two to three thousand feet in elevation, with 
numerous short, broken mountain ranges. 

In the Ebro valley on the northeast and the Guadalquivir (mean¬ 
ing Great River) valley on the southwest there are lowlands. Point 
to these rivers on the map. The only other extensive lowland is a 
narrow strip near the sea, which reaches most of the distance around 
the peninsula. A very large proportion of the surface, therefore, is 
made up of plateaus and mountains. 

This elevated surface has been instrumental, in the first place, in 
preventing Spain from becoming a great thoroughfare for the trans¬ 
portation of goods. The position of the peninsula, between the two 
busiest seas of the world, and between Africa and central Europe, 
suggests that it might be a valuable route for commerce. But the 
highlands separate , rather than unite, these regions. 

'Fhe highlands have an important inlluence also on the climate. 
Owing to the elevation the interior has cold winters, though the 
summers are hot ; and because of the fringe of mountains, the rain¬ 
fall is light everywhere except near the northwestern coast, where 
the vapor is condensed in rising over the slopes (Fig. 310). The 
southern portion of Spain, like Lower California, being in the horse 
latitudes (p. 248), is so arid that agriculture without irrigation is 
impossible. 

There are several other effects produced hy the highlands. In the first 
place, the rivers are unnavigable; for in descending from the arid plateau 
to the coastal plains their courses are rapid and their volume slight, be¬ 
sides that, most of them have cut such deep, narrow valleys, like that of 


366 


EUROPE 


our Colorado Canyon, that they are not only useless for irrigation but are 
even a great hindrance to communication. The Guadalquivir, which has 
a wide valley and which vessels are able to ascend as far as Seville, is 
the principal exception. 

Since the interior is so arid and rugged, it must have little timber, little 
agriculture, few people, and few roads, railways, and canals. With one or 
two exceptions, therefore, the chief towns are to be found along the coast. 


Agriculture and Grazing.—In one respect the elevation of the 
land is an advantage, because it insures great variety of climate and 
hence many kinds of farm products. What countries of South 
Ameiica does this condition call to mind ? 

We may expect grazing in the uplands and among the mountains, 
as in similar rugged and arid regions elsewhere. Name some of 

them. Spain is noted for 
the excellent grade of its 
sheep and mules. There 
are also many cattle, espe¬ 
cially in the rainy north¬ 
west ; but the fact that so 
much of the country is 
arid explains why there 
are many more sheep and 
goats than cattle. The 
sheep often wander about 

i . docks of ten thousand 

under the care of a number of shepherds and their dogs. In sum¬ 
mer they feed among the mountains, but in winter they are driven 
down to the more protected lowlands for shelter. 

Wheat is the most common crop in Spain, since it requires com¬ 
paratively little ram; but there is far less than might be, since so 
many of the Spaniards lack energy and enterprise. 



Fig. 346 


A sheep pasture at the Convent of Palos in Spain. 


the hnvlwU ° 1 th M alleyS 7 h f e i rri S ation is Possible, and especially on 
on lands along the coast, the farmers are more progressive and pros- 

peious. Barley, rye, and corn are raised in addition to wheat and these 

are among the staple foods of the people. Quantities of grapes are a 0 

?r^rkKect andi V he S ° Uthern P art of the p^insuL 
baik of the coils oak is a source of income to both countries 

I he arid southeastern coast is wonderfully productive. One reason is 

he warm climate, due to the influence of the Mediterranean; another 

the number of mountain streams, which, though useless for navigation are 

extremely valuable for irrigation. Some of the products of this section 










SPAIN AND PORTUGAL 


367 


besides wheat and corn, are cotton, grapes, olives, figs, dates, oranges, 
lemons, and rice. Several crops of some products may be raised in a year. 


Mining. — Spain is remarkably rich in minerals. Lead and silver 
are mined in the upper valley of the Guadalquivir, and along the 
southeastern coast. Some distance northeast of Seville a large 
quantity of quicksilver , or mercury, is obtained; and northwest of 



Fig. £47. 

A wooden-wheeled ox cart, to illustrate the backwardness of the Spaniards. 

Seville, and in southern Portugal, are some noted copper mines. 
Coal and iron ore are found in several parts of the peninsula, but the 
largest output of each occurs on the northern slope of the Cantabrian 
Mountains. Spain produces more quicksilver than any other coun¬ 
try, and is exceeded only by the United States in the output of 
copper and lead. 

I lere, however, as in other industries, the character of the people prevents 
proper development of the resources. Much of the benefit from the mines is 
due to the capital and enterprise of foreigners ; the English and French are 
in control of the copper mines, and the Rothschilds own the quicksilver. 

Manufacturing. — From what has been said above, it is apparent that 
manufacturing cannot flourish. This fact is all the more evident when we 
consider that more than two thirds of the Spaniards, and three fourths of 
the Portuguese, cannot read. Thus, although they have coal beds, much 
of their iron ore, instead of being smelted at home, is shipped to the coal 
fields of Swansea in Wales to be smelted. In some places, however, as will 
be seen in our study of the cities, there is manufacturing of certain kinds. 

Principal Cities of Spain. — Madrid, the metropolis and capital of 
Spain, has over a half million inhabitants; but unlike most other large 
cities so far studied, it is not an important manufacturing center. 
Why not? The explanation of its size is found in its central loca¬ 
tion, and the fact that it is the seat of the government. In crossing the 

















368 


EUROPE 


peninsula to connect the coastal cities, all the principal railway lines 
converge at this point, and thus Madrid has become the intellectual 
and political center of the country. 

To some extent, Madrid, with its wide streets, magnificent royal palace, 
and one of the finest art galleries in the world, recalls the attractions 
of I aiis. I)lit one of its most frequented places is an enormous building • 
which seats many thousands and which is used for bull fighting. In 
its indulgence in this brutal sport the city bears no resemblance to Paris; 
nor is there any resemblance in its surroundings. From the streets of 

Madrid one looks across the 
country for miles and miles, 
seeing not a tree nor fence 
nor house; only the weeds 
and scattered vegetation of 
an arid waste. 

The city next in impor¬ 
tance upon the highlands 
of Spain is Granada, 
the last stronghold of the 
Moors. To this point 
among the mountains, at 
the intersection of the best 

-L’ IVjt. t*±0. 

A Spanish bull fight. routes of travel from east 

to west, and from north 
to south, these people withdrew. Here they maintained themselves 
for two hundred years and developed a city of. four hundred thousand 
population.. At present, Granada contains less than one fourth as 
many inhabitants, and its principal attraction is the Moorish palace, 

or Alhambra (Mg. 345), one of the finest examples of Moorish archi¬ 
tecture in existence. 

. tlie Rowlands west of Granada are Seville and Cadiz, both flour¬ 
ishing cities at the time when vast stores of plunder were being brought 
from the Spanish colonies in the New World. Cadiz is now a fortified 
naval harbor; and Seville is recovering a degree of her former commer¬ 
cial importance. One tobacco factory in Seville employs about five thou¬ 
sand women m making cigars and cigarettes. 

Gibraltar, a steep hill, with bold cliffs rising on nearly all sides, 
anil with a town at its base, has belonged to England since 1704. 
41ns rock hill (Fig. 349) is, perhaps, the strongest fortification in 
the world, and guards the entrance to the Mediterranean. Why 
should the English especially want such a stronghold there ? 






SPAIN AND PORTUGAL 


369 


Malaga grapes serve to remind us of the coastal city by that name, and 
of the products about it. It has one of the warmest climates in Europe. 

Valencia and Barcelona are the leading seaports of Spain. 
The region about tbe former is a beautiful garden, much like 
southern California, which it resembles also in products. Name 
some of the products. In addition, rice is grown on the lowlands 
near the coast. Barcelona, the second Spanish city in size, is 
the principal seaport and an important textile manufacturing center 
as well. 

On the whole Spain is poorly provided with harbors; and while 
the majority of the people dwell near the coast, and many engage in 
fishing, they share little at present in international commerce. 



Fig. 349. 

The rock of Gibraltar, showing the narrow neck of land which connects if with the 

mainland. 


Colonies of Spain. — The only remnants now left to Spain of her once 
magnificent foreign possessions are for the most part in Africa. These 
include a few small settlements on the coast of Morocco; a portion of the 
western coast of Sahara, having little value; and a few small islands in 
the Gulf of Guinea. The Canary Islands, west of the northern coast of 
Africa, and the Balearic Isles in the Mediterranean also belong to Spain. 

Principal Cities and Colonies, of Portugal. — Lisbon and Oporto 
are the chief cities of Portugal. The former, the capital and 
metropolis, lying on a broad bay where the Tagus River enters the 
sea, has one of the finest harbors in existence. W ith its white 
houses, its cathedrals and palaces, — all partly buried in trees on 










370 


EUROPE 


the hillsides surrounding the harbor, —it vies in beauty with the 
most attractive cities in the world. 

The misfortunes of Lisbon have been many. It has suffered from 
sieges, plagues, and earthquakes. The most terrible catastrophe happened 
in 1755, when an earthquake, followed by fire, destroyed most of the 
houses and a large part of the population. 

Oporto gives the name to Port wine. The lower part of the Douro 
valley is one of the richest wine districts in Europe, and Oporto, like 
Bordeaux, is an important point for its export. 

Portugal, like Spain, has lost much of her foreign territory. The 
• Azores Islands, far to the west in the Atlantic, and the Madeira Islands, 



Fig. 350. 

The harbor and city of Oporto. Describe the situation of the city. 

to the southwest, are a part of the kingdom. The Cape Verde Islands, a 
volcanic group off the coast of Africa, are dependencies. Portugal also has 
l ai S e possessions on the mainland of Africa and smaller ones in Asia. 

Review Questions. - (1) Tell about the people and government of Spain 
and Portugal. (2) Describe the highlands of the peninsula. (3) Mention 
several consequences of this elevated condition of the land. (4) Tell about agri¬ 
culture and grazing. (5) Tell about the mining. (6) What can you say about 
manufacturing ? (t) Give the main facts about the following cities : (a) Madrid 

(b) Granada, (c) Seville, (d) Cadiz, (e) Malaga, (/) Valencia, ( 9 ) Barcelona. 
C) I oi what is Gibraltar noted? (9) What about the colonies of Spain? (10) Tell 
Lisbon, (/>) Oporto. (11) What about the colonies of Portugal? 
(12) JN ame and locate the principal cities of Spain and Portugal. 

Suggestions. — (1) About what portion of the boundary line between Spain 
and 1 ortugal is formed by rivers ? (2) What must be the influence of railways 

upon the old-fashioned methods of farming in the interior? (3) Recall the 
Spaniards treatment of the Incas in South America. 

For References, see Teacher's Book. 











Fig. 351. 


Some of the few wild animals of Europe. Domestic animals are abundant, including the 
reindeer of the tundras. Even the bear is tamed and exhibited. Have you ever seen 
one of these European bears performing on the street? 


26—A G 


371 










372 


A delta at Menaggio, on Lake Como, Italy. Here a town is built, because on the mountainous coast of this lake 

few other places than the deltas are level enough for towns. 





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Fig. 354. 

Possessions and dependencies of the United States, France, Germany, and the Netherlands. 











































































































VI. NORWAY, SWEDEN, AND DENMARK 


(For Map Questions, see Map, Fig. 353.) 

People. — The people of these three countries have long been 
more or less united, for the well-settled southern portions of Nor¬ 
way and Sweden are not separated' by any natural barrier, while 
only a narrow, shallow sea separates Scandinavia from Denmark. 
Being descended from a common stock, and at times having a single 
government, they have many interests in common. The written 
language of the Norwegians and Danes is still the same, and Nor¬ 
way and Sweden until recently were united under one king, although 
they are now entirely independent of each other. Denmark has 
always been independent, and, like Norway and Sweden, it is a limited 
monarchy. Norway and Sweden were once a part of Denmark. 

These people have been closely connected with our own history, for 
they made some of the early invasions and settlements in Great Britain, 
and are thereby to be numbered among our ancestors. Their daring sea¬ 
men reached Greenland, by way of Iceland, and discovered America nearly 
five hundred years before Columbus approached its shores. In the present 
century they have migrated to the United States by thousands, and have 
chosen homes in many states, but particularly in Minnesota, Illinois, and 
Wisconsin. 

Physiography and Climate. — There are only about one fourth as 
many inhabitants in these three countries together as there are in 
the British Isles; yet in spite of frequent European wars, they have 
preserved their independence through many centuries. This has 
been due in part to their peculiar position. The only land approach 
to Scandinavia is by way of Lapland in Russia, which is so far north 
that it is very cold. Thus the peninsula is almost as isolated from 
other nations as is Great Britain. 

Denmark, on the other hand, is partly connected with Germany. 
However, the most important parts of Denmark, the islands, are 
completely separated by water. These islands and the Danish penin¬ 
sula (Fig. 375) are the higher portions of a lowland that were 
left projecting above the water when sinking of the land changed 

373 


374 


EUROPE 


the Baltic valley to a shallow sea (p. 319). Standing at the 
entrance to the Baltic, they guard the approaches to this inland sea, 
and naturally Germany, Russia, and other nations have long coveted 



Fig. 355. 

A Norwegian fjord with steep cliffs rising from the 
very water’s edge. 


them. But as neither of 
the Great Powers was will¬ 
ing that one of the others 
should hold them, little 
Denmark has been allowed 
to continue its independent 
existence. 

The rugged surface and 
severe climate of Scandinavia 
have also served as a protec¬ 
tion against invaders. From 
its southern to its northern 
end the peninsula is moun¬ 
tainous. It .is an ancient 
mountain land (p. 317), much 
worn, and cut by deep stream 
valleys. While some peaks 
reach an elevation of six to 
eight thousand feet, most of 
them are lower and of so 
nearly the same height that 
the upland resembles a pla¬ 
teau when viewed across the 
mountain crests. The boun¬ 


dary between Norway and Sweden follows the divide between the east 


and west flowing streams; and since this divide is near the western side 
of the peninsula, those streams which flow in that direction are made 
shorter. Therefore, in all but the southern part, Norway is a narrow, 
mountainous region crossed by short streams flowing in deep, steep-sided 
valleys (Fig. 355). 


Agricultural Districts. — The mountainous surface and cold cli¬ 
mate axe unfavorable to agriculture, although the warm ocean waters 
(p. 321) exert an enormous influence here, as in the British Isles. 
In rising ovei the mountains, the westerly winds supply abundant 
lain and snow, and it is the latter that causes the numerous glaciers. 

Since the slope on the eastern side is much the longer, Sweden 
has extensive lowlands throughout its length. But these lowlands 
are so far north, and so protected from the influence of the sea, that 
in all but the southern part agriculture is of little importance. 




375 


NORWAY, SWEDEN, AND DENMARK 

Although Denmark is free from mountains, the northern and 
■\\estein portion of the Danish peninsula (called Jutland) is a sandy 
waste, so that only the islands and the southeastern part of the 
peninsula are very productive. 

In these three countries, therefore, there is a comparatively small 
area that is valuable for agriculture, and the sections lie near 
together ; namely, in southern Norway and Sweden and in eastern 
Denmark. 

Industries and Cities of Norway. — Since less than four thou¬ 
sand (out of a total of one hundred and twenty-five thousand) 
square miles in Norway have a soil and climate adapted to agriculture 
or pasturage, the amount of stock and grain produced is small. There- 



Fig. 


356. 


Bergen, Norway, with its deep, narrow fjord harbor. 


fore, much meat, Hour, and other food must be imported. Also, while 
there are some silver and copper mines, coal is entirely lacking, be¬ 
cause the rocks were formed before the Coal Period. Manufacturing, 
therefore, is little developed. Even the fine water power is little 
used, because raw products for manufacturing are not abundant. 

On what, then, do the two million inhabitants depend for a liv¬ 
ing ? They have two valuable resources, — lumber and fish. More 
than one fifth of the country is forest-covered, — pines being most 
common, — and lumber, wooden goods, and paper are the most 






376 


EUROPE 


important exports. As in Maine, the rapidly flowing rivers are of 
use in moving the logs from the forest, and also in supplying power 
for the sawmills and planing mills. 

Fish abound on the shallow banks along the irregular western 
coast, especially codfish in the neighborhood of the far northern 
Lofoden Islands. The North Sea with its many fish is also close at 
hand, and the Arctic Ocean with its seals and whales. Over a hun- 



Fig. 357 . 

North Cape, the northern point in Norway. The summer sun is shining here at midnight, 

because the cape is within the Arctic Circle. 


dred thousand Norwegians are engaged in the fishing industry. 
Along the fjords every family owns a boat, and knows how to make 
as well as use one. While the men are at sea the women work the 
small farms or garden patches. 

The abundance of lumber and the love for the sea, developed 
through centuries of experience in navigating the deep fjords and 
in fishing, have given rise to a third great industry, that of carrying 
goods for other nations. The timber for wooden vessels is easily 
supplied, and this small Norwegian nation has at present a greater 

number of freight vessels than any other European country except 
the British Isles. 







NORWAY, SWEDEN, AND DENMARK 


377 


J liese facts help to explain why the Norwegian towns are found 
along the coast. Indeed, it is rare to find even a village in the 
interior. The two principal cities are Christiania, the capital and 
largest city, and Bergen (Fig. 356). The former is situated at the 
head of a long, narrow, sunken valley, or fjord, which makes an 
excellent harbor, and the city is the principal port and distributing 
center for southern Norway. Bergen is the important fishing port, 
as Aberdeen is in Scotland and Gloucester in Massachusetts. 


Scenery on the Western Coast. — As in the British Isles and north¬ 
eastern North America, the sinking of the Scandinavian peninsula has 
caused the sea to enter the river valleys, forming many bays, peninsulas, 
and islands. It is estimated that there are fully ten thousand islands 
along the coast of Norway. Owing to the fact that, before the sinking 
took place, the river valleys were deeply cut in hard rock, the bays are 
usually long, narrow, and deep fjords (Fig. 355). 

Some of the fjords extend fully ninety miles inland, and swollen 
streams from the mountains frecpiently plunge, for a fall of a thousand 
feet or more, over the vertical cliffs which bound the fjords. The cliffs*are 
often only barren rock; but here and there, where the slopes are not too 



Fig. 358. 


Haramerfest, Norway, far within the Arctic circle where the sun does not set from 
May 13 to duly 21). This town is the nearest to the pole of any in the world except¬ 
ing Upernivik in Greenland, where all but a few of the inhabitants are Eskimos. 


steep, green forests cover the surface; glaciers are frequently in sight; 
and occasionally, upon a level patch, a hamlet of fishermen’s homes 
(Fig. 309) is seen. These hamlets are usually upon the deltas of small 
streams and are connected with the outer world, and with other villages, 





• 378 


EUROPE 


by no road or pathway except the waters of the fjord. So isolated are 
these hamlets that each man must learn to do many things, — farm, fish, 
tan his leather, make his shoes, build his boat, his house, etc. 

Industries and Cities of Sweden. — Agriculture is the leading in¬ 
dustry of Sweden, owing to the extent of the fertile lowlands. The 
former glacier (Fig. 306) swept rocks and soil down from the western 
highlands, giving to the southern part of the country much the same 
appearance as New England. Oats are raised in most abundance, 
but rye, barley, wheat, and potatoes are also produced. One reason 
why these products can mature here is the absence of cool summer 
winds from the ocean; another is the great length of the summer 
days in this far northern latitude. Much live stock is also raised, 
and butter is exported to Great Britain. 

However, nearly one half the area of Sweden is covered with 
forest, and lumber is by far the greatest article of export, as in 



Fig. 359. 

The royal palace at Stockholm. 


Norway. Indeed, these two countries supply much of the lumber 
needed in western Europe. Their wood is especially valued because 
of its hardness and durability — qualities that are due to the closeness 
of the annual rings caused by the shortness of the summer season. 

Mining is the third important industry. There are silver, lead, 
zinc, and copper mines. Some coal is found in the southern end, and 
the country has long been noted for its excellent iron ore. But since 













NORWAY , SWEDEN, AND DENMARK 


379 


the principal iron mines are located far from the coal, there is little 
iron manufacturing in Sweden. However, as in portions of the Lake 
Superior district of the United States, some of the iron ore is smelted 
by the use of charcoal, and some by coal mined in Sweden or brought 
from other countries. The Swedish iron is of such excellent quality 
that it is eagerly sought where the highest grade of steel tools is 
manufactured, as in Sheffield, England. 

Sweden possesses excellent water power for various kinds of 
manufacturing, and in recent years the numerous rivers have begun 
to be utilized, so that manufacturing is making rapid progress there. 

The two principal cities — Stockholm, the capital, and Gothen¬ 
burg — are on the coast; but there are other small seaports and 
inland mining towns. Stockholm is famous for its fine palaces, 
public buildings, museums, and commercial establishments. The 
situation of this city is one of marvelous beauty, on an excel¬ 
lent harbor; but unfortunately it is blocked with ice for four 
months each }^ear. Owing to the numerous lakes and to canals, 
it is connected by water, as well as by rail, with the chief points 
in a populous region, and is therefore the principal distributing 
center for imports. Gothenburg, the chief center for exports, 
possesses the important advantage that its harbor is seldom frozen 
over. It is connected with Stockholm by railway as well as by 
lake and canal. Much of the distance between these two cities is 
occupied by lakes. 

The principal foreign trade of both Norway and Sweden is with Great 
Britain. Give reasons for this. What must be the main articles of import 
and export? Next to Great Britain comes Germany. Can you suggest 
reasons for this ? 

Industries and Cities of Denmark. — There is neither coal nor 
metal in the rocks of Denmark. The only mineral product of value 
is clay, well suited to the manufacture of porcelain, which is an im¬ 
portant industry. As in Ireland, the lack of coal for fuel is partially 
met by peat from the bogs and swamps of the northern and western 
parts. 

Farming, especially dairying, is the chief industry, and butter 
constitutes one half the exports of Denmark. The laws of the nation 
discourage large farms, so that each farmer, by carefully cultivating 
a small patch of land, as in Belgium, obtains the most that it can 


380 


EUROPE 


I he nearness to good fishing banks lias naturally made fishing 
important; and this, together with the influence of island life, has 
created such a love for the sea that large numbers of Danes serve as 
sailors on British and other foreign vessels. 

As in the case of Norway and Sweden, the principal foreign trade of 
Denmark is with Great Britain. Why? What goods may well be 
exchanged? One might therefore expect an important seaport on 
the western coast; but that coast is so low, and so shut in by sand 



Fig. 3o0. 

A view in Copenhagen. 


bars, that good harbors are lacking. In fact, the only harbor in all 
Denmark that admits large vessels is Copenhagen (merchants’ 
harbor) on Seeland Island. Since this point guards the entrance to 
the Baltic Sea, there is a double reason why Copenhagen is the 
principal city of Denmark. The fact that it is the capital also 
increases its importance. It ranks nearly with Cleveland in size. 

Colonies of Denmark. — The Danes, even more than the Norwegians, 
have been daring seamen and explorers of foreign lands. Although^some 
of their possessions have been lost, Greenland and the Faroe Islands are 
still Danish colonies, and Iceland is a Danish dependency. In the Faroes, 










NORWAY, S WE DEN, AND DENMARK 


381 


consisting of a score of small islands north of Scotland, the principal prod¬ 
ucts are sheep and fish. YY hy might you expect these two particularly ? 

Iceland , which is larger than Ireland, and more than twice the size 
of Denmark, is an island of volcanic origin. Over a hundred volcanoes 
are found there, twenty-five of which have been in eruption during his¬ 
toric times. Mt. Hecla is one of the most noted of these. Destructive 
earthquakes are common, and there are also geysers similar to those found 
in our Yellowstone National Park. The interior is a desert plateau, for 
the most part covered with snow, and hence uninhabited. Near the sea, 
however, there is some good pasture land, and the people are principally 
engaged in raising cattle and sheep. Fishing is important, and down 
from the eider duck is a valuable product. 

Review Questions.— (1) What about the people of these three countries ? 

(2) Describe briefly the surface of Norway; of Sweden; of Denmark. (3) Where 

are the principal farming sections? (4) Tell about agriculture in Norway. 
(5) Why is there little manufacturing there? (0) What is the principal export? 
Why? (7) What about fishing? (8) Give reasons for the large merchant fleet 

of Norway. (9) Tell about the cities of Norway. (10) Describe the scenery on 
the western coast. (11) Tell about Sweden : principal industry; forests ; mining ; 
manufacturing; principal cities. (12) What are the industries in Denmark? 
(13) Tell about Copenhagen. (14) Tell about the foreign territory of Denmark. 
(15) What are the important facts about Iceland ? (16) Give reasons why Norw ay, 

Sweden, and Denmark have their principal foreign trade with the British Isles. 

Suggestions. — (1) Why should the telephone prove of special importance 
among the fishing towns scattered along the coast of Norway? (2) By use of a 
globe explain why the sun does not set for v'eeks at a time at Ilammerfest. 

(3) Why is whale and seal fishing important as a means of furnishing light 
during the long night of this northern land? (4) What do you know' about the 
life of the Laplanders? (5) Why should Bergen be one of the rainiest cities of 
Europe? (0) Give reasons why harbors on the Baltic should be blocked by ice 
much oftener than those on the western coast of Norway. (7) Can you give a 
reason why so many matches should be made in Sweden? (8) Give all the 
reasons you can to explain why the Norsemen should have become such daring 
navigators. (9) Ilans Christian Andersen was a native of Denmark. What 
stories do you know that were written by him? (10) Read and retell stories 
of the Norse gods in old-time mythology. 


VII. RUSSIA 


Map Questions (Fig. 353). — (1) About how much of Europe is included 
iu Russia? (2) What part of the distance from pole to equator is included? 
(3) What does this suggest concerning temperature and rainfall ? (4) How much 

of the boundary of Russia is seacoast ? (5) Name the seas which border it. 

(6) Nalne the mountains on or near the border. (7) What portion of Russia is 
occupied by plains? (Fig. 304.) (8) In what directions do the large rivers flow? 

Name the three longest. (9) What peculiar fact do you notice about the Caspian 
Sea? (10) Find Poland, Finland, and Lapland, (li) What parts of Asia are in 
the Russian Empire? (Fig. 403.) 

Size and Position. — Russia in Europe is larger than all the other 
European countries together ; and the Russian Empire, which 
includes Siberia and other lands in Asia, occupies about one sixth of 
all the land upon the globe. The empire extends from the Baltic on 
the west to the Pacific on the east, and within its borders is included 
a great variety of climate. 

In spite of its vast extent, the development of Russia is greatly 
hindered by the lack of good harbors. In this respect it contrasts 
strongly with the United States. To be sure, the sea forms a large 
portion of the Russian boundary; but Archangel, the principal 
port on the White Sea, is ice-bound for nine months, and the Baltic 
ports for four or five months each year. Besides this, the entrances 
to the Baltic and Black seas are guarded by foreign nations. Why 
are the Caspian ports of little use ? 

Physiography. — Most of the large rivers in western Europe have 
their sources in the mountains. Give examples (Fig. 304). It is 
not so, however, in Russia, where the central divide is a low, hilly 
region less than twelve hundred feet above sea level at its highest 
point. Aside from the mountains along the border this is the 
highest part of Russia. How does it compare in altitude with the 
highest point in flat Holland ? (p. 346.) 

From what has been said, it is evident that most of Russia is an 
almost level plain (Fig. 304). - Since several of the rivers are very 
long, what must be true as to the velocity of their currents? 
What must follow as to their value for navigation ? What about 
the ease of canal construction ? 


382 


RUSSIA 


383 


In southeastern Russia, on the other hand, are the lofty Caucasus 
Mountains (Fig. 307), in which one of the peaks, the extinct volcano 
Mt. Elbruz, is the highest mountain in Europe. But, at the very 
base of these mountains, bordering the Caspian Sea, are broad plains 
which in places are even lower than the level of the sea. 

The Caspian Sea, into which the longest river of Europe pours its 
floods, is the largest inland sea in the world. In spite of the enormous 
volume of water which enters these inland seas, the evaporation in that 
dry climate has caused them so to shrink in size that neither the Caspian 
nor the Aral Sea (Fig. 403) is now connected with the ocean. The sur¬ 
face of the Caspian is eighty-five feet below sea level, and by evaporation 
it is steadily groving smaller and salter, leaving broad, salt-covered plains 
round about it. 


Climate. — The influence of distance from the ocean upon tem¬ 
perature and rainfall is well illustrated in Russia. Moscow is in the 
same latitude as Edinburgh ; but while at Edinburgh the average 
temperature for January is 37°, at Moscow it is nearly 25° colder. 



Fio. 361. 

A Laplander’s hut in northwestern Russia. 





384 


EUROPE 


Notice (Fig. 268) which summer isotherms pass nearest to these two 
cities. It was the severity of the Russian winter that caused 
Napoleon Bonaparte to lose nearly the whole of a great army when 
he was invading that country in 1812. What effect must this cold 
have upon navigation of the rivers ? 

Extreme drought, as well as extremes of temperature, are found 
in parts of eastern Russia. Although the rain-bearing winds meet 
with no barrier in sweeping over such level land, they nevertheless 



Fig. 362. 


Laplanders dressed in furs. 

deposit so much moisture on the countries of western Europe that no 
part of Russia has heavy rainfall; and the eastern part averages less 
than twenty inches per year (Fig. 310). Since this amount is barely 
sufficient for agriculture, the crops suffer, and famines follow in 
especially dry seasons. Southeastern Russia is altogether too arid 
for farming, being not only far from the ocean, but so far south that 
it is not greatly influenced by the prevailing westerlies. 

People and Government. — The plains of Russia have offered no 
better barrier to the inroads of invaders than to the winds. We 
therefore find many kinds of people united under Russian rule. Most 













RUSSIA 


385 


of these belong to the white race, but to a different division from 
the German and British peoples. The Russians are Slavs, while the 
inhabitants of Germany, Scandinavia, and the British Isles are of 
the Teutonic division. But Russia also contains many Jews, Teutons, 
and other people, including the Lapps (Figs. 361 and 362), who are 
classed with the Mongolian race. All together not less than forty 
languages are spoken within the realm. 

In founei centuries, while other parts of Europe were advancing in 
civilization, Russia was being raided by outsiders and its progress retarded 
by conquest. The country was so remote from western Europe that it 
felt little influence from the growing civilization of the west. Moreover, 
approach by water was then difficult, because formerly the only Russian 
seacoast was on the 
Arctic. It was not 
until the time of 
Peter the Great 
(1682-1725) that 
Russia began to 
learn the lessons of 
civilization from 
other European 
nations. 


The Emperor, 
or Czar , is an ab¬ 
solute monarch 
“ whose will alone 
is law.” On purely 
local matters, how¬ 
ever, the peasants 
have a voice. 



Fig. 3(»3. 

A fisherman’s house in Finland. Fishing is a very important 
industry in Russian waters; and there is a great demand for 
fish, owing, to the number of fast days kept by the Greek 
Church, to which the majority of Russians belong. 


Those of a locality meet in a Mir, or assembly, to discuss mat¬ 
ters of common interest and to elect officers from their number, 
somewhat as is done in town-meetings in the United States. 
Naturally, in this day of popular government, many of the people 
are dissatisfied, and owing to this unrest, the Czar has granted a 
form of representation to the people in a national body called the 
Duma. Some of the most highly educated among the Russians have 
joined with the peasants and industrial classes in the movement 
toward a constitution. 

Lumbering. — Nearly a third of European Russia is forest-covered, 
2c 










386 


EUROPE 


and the timber resources, as in Norway (p. 378), are among the 
greatest of the country. This forest supplies not only lumber, 
but pulp for paper and bark for tanning. Many fur-bearing ani¬ 
mals live in the forest, as was formerly the case in other parts of 
Europe. 

Farming and Grazing. — Both in the forest region and on the open 
plains to the south there is extensive agriculture. Fully nine tenths 
of the people are supported by farming, which makes Russia pri¬ 
marily an agricultural country. 

The most important crops are the grains, especially rye, wheat, 
barley, and oats. Russia ranks next to the United States among 
grain-producing countries, and wheat is one of its principal exports. 
Another important crop is hay ; and potatoes, sugar beets, and flax 
are extensively raised in the cool temperate climate. In southern 
Russia the warm climate permits the culture of grapes, tobacco, 
and corn ; and south of the Caucasus even olives and cotton are 
produced. 

On the grazing lands of the arid steppes, which resemble our west¬ 
ern plains, many sheep, cattle, and horses are raised. The nomadic 
herdsmen, such as the Cossacks, still retain many of the customs of 
the shepherds and herders of Bible times, who dwelt farther south 
in Asia. 

Mineral Wealth. — Some parts of Russia contain mineral deposits 
of great value. In the Ural Mountains, for example, are gold, silver, 
copper, platinum, and other metals, besides some precious stones and 
graphite, or “ black lead,” which is used in lead pencils. 

Coal and iron are mined in several parts of Russia (Fig. 305), 
and each year the amount is increasing. As in Great Britain, some 
of the iron ore is so near coal and limestone that it is easily 
smelted. 

Russia ranks next to the United States in the production of petroleum. 
This oil is found in several places, especially at Baku on the Caspian. 
But since its quality is not as good as that of the United States, it is less 
useful for kerosene. Large quantities are therefore consumed as fuel for 
steamers on the Caspian and Volga. 

Manufacturing. — Although numerous factories have recently been 
established in Russia, about six sevenths of the manufacturing population 
carry on the work by hand in their own homes. What a contrast to the 
United States and to Great Britain ! 


RUSSIA 


387 


Principal Cities and their Commerce 

Moscow and Nijni Novgorod. — The former isolation of Russia 
from other countries is illustrated by the fact that the principal 
cities were for a long time situated far in the interior. For example, 
Moscow, the second city in size and one of the chief manufacturing 
centers, and once the capital of the empire, is located almost in the 
center of the realm, as Madrid is in Spain. The point was well 
chosen, because rivers, which canals could easily connect, diverge 
from this section in all directions. By the introduction of railways 
the advantage of this location was so increased that Moscow is 
now the great railway center of Russia, as Madrid is of Spain, 
and for the same reason. State this reason (p. 3G7). But the 
land about the city, unlike that around Madrid, is fertile and 
densely populated. 

Not only is Moscow adorned with royal palaces and government 
buildings, but it is the holy city of Russia, and therefore has numerous 
convents and churches 
(Fig. 364). The Univer¬ 
sity of Moscow, the largest 
in the empire, is attended 
by about four thousand 
students. 

East of Moscow, on the 
Volga River, is Nijni Nov¬ 
gorod, renowned for its an¬ 
nual fairs. A great trade 
center is needed somewhere 
in this region for the ex¬ 
change of Asiatic and of 
Russian products, and this 
city is suitable for the pur¬ 
pose because of its superior 
water connections. 

Point them out (Map, 

Fig. 353). The fairs, held in 
August and September, are 
the greatest in Europe, and 
attract as many as two him- 
dred thousand strangers an¬ 
nually. In a single season 
goods are exchanged to the value of nearly $200,000,000, and prices are 
fixed on crops and other materials for the coming year. Why could not 
such a center for trade be better located upon the Caspian Sea? 

27—A G 



Fig. 3(54. 

Greek Church at Moscow. 









388 


EUROPE 


St. Petersburg. —While the two cities just described are very old, 
their position in the interior is not well adapted for communication 
with distant nations. It was this fact which led Peter the Great, in 
1703, to found St. Petersburg at the head of the Gulf of Finland. 
The site selected is very marshy, and the climate is cold, foggy, and 
unhealthful. Moreover, the arm of the sea on which the city is situ¬ 



ated is so shallow 
that a ship canal 
twenty miles in 
length has been 
necessary to con¬ 
nect it with the 
deeper water far¬ 
ther west. In ad¬ 
dition, the harbor 
is ice-bound for 
more than four 
months each year. 

1/ 

Yet, in spite of 
all these disadvan¬ 
tages, St. Peters¬ 
burg is already the largest city in Russia, and the fifth in size in 
Europe—facts that show how much such a seaport was needed. 
It is also one of the most magnificent of cities, having especially 
wide streets, splendid public buildings, and fine residences. More 


Fig. olio. 

St. Isaac’s Church in St. Petersburg. 


goods are shipped by this route than from any other Baltic port. 
Riga, to the southwest, has about half as much shipping. 

Odessa. — Odessa, another important port, was founded a little 


over a century ago, when Russia obtained possession of the north¬ 
western coast of the Black Sea. Since the harbor is rarely frozen 
over for more than a few days, it possesses a great advantage over 
St. Petersburg, which it equals in its shipping trade. Besides being 
the chief outlet for the vast grain trade of southern Russia, and the 
principal port on the Black Sea, Odessa is an important flour-milling 
center, like Minneapolis. 


Warsaw and Lodz. Thus far the Russians have found no opportunity 
to obtain possession of Constantinople, although they have, no doubt, felt 
many a yearning in that direction. Why ? But their progress in the west 
has not been confined to the establishment of seaports. They have extended 
their territory in various directions, one of their most important acquisi- 















RUSSIA 


389 


tions being a large part of Poland , in which are situated two of the lead¬ 
ing cities of Russia, — Warsaw and Lodz. The former is. a center for 
the railways that connect Russia with western Europe, and the latter is 
an important manufacturing center. Much coal and iron are mined in 
this vicinity. 

Finland, whose capital is Helsingfors, although a part of the Russian 
Empire, has a measure of independence. There is a parliament which 
makes laws, but the Czar has the right of veto. Unlike the Russians, 
most of whom belong to the Greek Church, the Finns are mostly Protes¬ 
tants, belonging to the Lutheran Church. Mistreatment by the Russian 
government has recently led to the migration of many Finns and Poles 
to the United States. The policy of the Russians is to destroy the 
nationality of the people. 

Russia owns Siberia also, but the ambitious plans of the govern¬ 
ment in regard to the great Asiatic Empire led the nation into a 
disastrous war with Japan ending in the utter rout of the Russians. 
Thus the nation’s field of operations in the east was greatly limited. 

Review Questions. — (1) Tell about the size of the Russian Empire. 
(2) What can you say about its position with reference to the sea? pi) Describe 
its surface features. (4) Tell about the rivers. (5) Tell about the Caspian Sea. 
((>) I low does the climate vary? (7) Tell about the people. (8) What about the 
government? (9) Tell about lumbering. (10) What are the principal farm 
products? (11) What about grazing? (12) What mineral products are found? 

Where? (13) For what purpose is some of the petroleum used? (14) What is 

the condition of manufacturing? (15) Tell about each of the cities : («) Moscow 
— location, comparison with Madrid, importance; (/>) Xijni Novgorod — location, 
fairs; (e) St. Petersburg — location, surroundings, importance; (d) Odessa — 
location, importance; ( e ) Warsaw; (/) Lodz. (16) What are the conditions in 
Finland? (17) What about Russia’s future? 

Suggestions. — (1) Compare the area of the Caspian Sea with that of Lake 
Superior. (2) Read about how the inhabitants of Moscow burned their houses in 
1812 rather than give shelter to Napoleon’s army. What followed? (3) Wliat 
must be some of the difficulties connected with building good roads in southern 
Russia? (4) What did Kosciusko, the Pole, do to make his name memorable to 
Americans? (5) Have you read the story of Thaddeus of M arsaw .■* If so, what 
can you tell about it ? (6) Read how Peter the Great wandered through European 

countries as a common workman, in order to obtain the benefit of W estern ideas. 
(7) Make a sketch map of Russia, with principal rivers, cities, etc. (8) Compare 
the area and population of Russia and the United States. Also the degrees of 
latitude included in the two countries. (9) Where else besides on the Atlantic, 
Pacific, and Mediterranean does Russia desire an opening to the sea ? 

For Reference, see Teacher s Book'. 


VIII. GERMAN EMPIRE 

Map Questions (Fig. 375). — (1) Compare the latitude of Berlin with that of 
London. (2) Of New \ork. (3) Estimate the greatest length of Germany from 
east to west, hrom north to south. (4) How does it compare in size with the 
British Isles? Russia? (5) How much of the boundary is natural? (6) Point 
out the principal rivers. To what extent do they correspond in general direc¬ 
tion? (7) Is most of the surface plain or mountainous? (Fig. 304.) Where 
are the mountains ? (8) What facts do you notice about the coast line ? (9) Is 

the North Sea or the Baltic the more favorable place for seaports? Why? 

Extent and Position. — The German Empire contains nearly 
209,000 square miles, which is an area a little larger than France 
and twice the size of Colorado. But it has about 60,000,000 inhab¬ 
itants, or nearly a hundred times as many as Colorado and 21,000,000 
more than France. 

The position of this great nation offers a marked contrast to that 
of Great Britain. Only about one third of its boundary is water, 
while its frontier comes in contact with seven independent countries, 
aside from Luxemburg. What are their names? 

I he location of the British Isles is regarded as favorable for 
world commerce, inasmuch as densely populated Europe lies near 
at hand on one side, while the far-away New World is on the other 
side. The situation of Germany possesses great advantages, also. 
Owing to her central location, most of the markets of the continent 
are at her very doors, while two of her principal ports, Hamburg 
and Bremen, face Great Britain and the West. On the map (Fig. 
375) find some of the large cities that can be quickly reached from 
Germany. In these days of railways Germany’s central position is 
superior to that of England for European trade. 

People and Government. — It has required a great struggle, which 
has lasted through centuries, to bring under one rule the various 
people within the boundary line of the German Empire. For cen¬ 
turies there was, at best, only a loose confederation to hold them 
together ; and the numerous states which occupied the region were 
often at war with one another and with surrounding nations. Their 

390 


GERMAN EMPIRE 


391 


condition was, in some respects, similar to our own during and im¬ 
mediately following the Revolutionary War. There was, however, 
one important fact to their disadvantage — their meddlesome neigh¬ 
bors helped to intensify the quarrels that arose among them. 

During the War of 1866 Prussia and Austria, the principal king¬ 
doms of the G-erman Confederation, strove with each other for the 
exclusive leadership. Prussia proved successful, and Austria with¬ 
drew from the union. In 1871 the new German Empire, with its 
present boundaries, was established. 

All together there are twenty-six states within the Empire, some 
of them being kingdoms, some duchies, and some merely free towns. 
The smallest of all is the city of Bremen, occupying only ninety-nine 



Fio. 3GG. 


The German Reichstag , corresponding to our House of Representatives, meets in this build¬ 
ing, in Berlin. The other legislative branch, called the Bicndesrath , is composed of 
members appointed by the various German states. 

square miles, while Prussia, the largest, contains more than one half of 
the entire empire, and in 1897 had a population of about 32,000,000. 
They are all united under a central authority, more closely and less inde¬ 
pendently than our states. In place of a President they have an Em¬ 
peror (the King of Prussia being by law the German Emperor), and their 































392 


EUROPE 


form of government is a constitutional monarchy (Fig. 366). However, 
the power of the Emperor is much greater than that of the British King, 
though less absolute than that of the Russian Czar. 

Defense. -— The Germans in a war with France in 1870 not only 
defeated the French, but compelled them to pay a large sum of 
money. At the same time they seized the French territory west of 
the Rhine, called Alsace-Lorraine, in which Metz and Strassburg are 
situated. This is a suggestion of the way in which much of Ger¬ 
many’s irregular frontier line has been determined. To a great 
extent mountains form the southern boundary, and water the north¬ 
ern ; but the eastern and western limits, largely decided by war, do 
not follow any natural barrier. Draw an outline map of Germany. 

In order to preserve her present boundaries, Germany must be 
prepared to defend them at any time. This need calls many citizens 
to an occupation which we have not thus far considered, namely, 
that of preparing for war. 

It is a fact that each of the great European nations is jealously watch¬ 
ing the other; and as no one of them knows how soon a dispute may 
arise with its neighbor, each maintains a large and thoroughly equipped 
army. The object of each is to be so dangerous that others may fear to 
offend or attack it; and if once involved in war to come off victorious. 

For such reasons all able-bodied young men in Germany are required 
to devote usually two full years and parts of several succeeding years to 
active military training. Most of them enter the service at about the age 
of twenty ; as there are about four hundred thousand males arriving 
at that age every year, one can obtain some idea of what it costs a Euro¬ 
pean nation to have close neighbors. The peace footing of the German 
army is almost six hundred thousand men, which is larger than the num¬ 
ber employed in all the mines of the British Isles. In addition to this, 
the German navy calls for many recruits. As all these men are, for the 
time being, withdrawn from industrial pursuits, the nation loses the fruits 
of their labor for that period. Thus the productiveness of the nation is 
reduced. 

Extensive fortifications are built near the boundary, as at Cologne, 
Metz, and Strassburg on the French side, and Konigsberg and Posen near 
Russia. They are also numerous in the neighborhood of the great interior 
cities, and at strategic points here and there. The expense of these forti¬ 
fications, and the vast sums required to keep up the army and navy, form 
a heavy drain upon the nation. 

Germany is not unlike the other European nations in these respects. 
As already stated (p. 343), the British, having no immediate neighbors, 
rely mainly upon their powerful navy for defense. But every one of the 


GERMAN EMPIRE 


393 


Great Powers is calling for many men, and expending large sums of money 
either'for the army or navy, or both. In fact, preparation for war is one 
of the greatest occupations of Europe to-day. 

Physiography. — Germany consists of two quite different parts. 
r l he southern section is mainly a mountainous region of ancient date, 
and is therefore worn low, like the mountains of Great Britain and 
New England. It is, in fact, a plateau from one to two thousand 
feet in height, with some ranges, like the Erzgebirge, rising high 
enough to be commonly classed as mountains. Only in the ex¬ 
treme south, on the edge of the Alps, is a great altitude reached, 
one peak being nearly ten thousand feet above sea level. 

Valuable minerals have been revealed by the wearing away of 
these ancient mountains; indeed, the mineral belt of southern Bel¬ 
gium and northeastern France is but a continuation of the highlands 
which cross southern and central Germany. 

Northern. Germany is a lowland, broadening toward the east 
until it merges into the plains of Russia. In the neighborhood of 
Holland the plain is very low and flat (Fig. 367) ; but in most 
places, owing to the irregular deposits left by the Scandinavian 
glaciers, it is rolling. Elevations in this part of Germany 
rarely exceed six hundred feet. This plain is, in large part, in- 



Fig. 367. 

A view on the level plain of North Germany. 











394 


EUROPE 


eluded in Prussia, the greatest and most powerful of the German 
kingdoms. 

Name and trace the courses of four large rivers which flow northward. 
Which is the most important ? 

Climate. — The average yearly rainfall is about twenty-eight 
inches, decreasing toward the east to about twenty inches near the 


Fig. 3G8. 

A view on the Rhine at Bingen. Notice the opposite hank, where the earth has been terraced 

so that even the hill slope may be used for vineyards. 







Russian border. That these figures may be better appreciated, we 
may recall the fact that the average rainfall in most parts of the 
United States east of the Mississippi River is over forty inches. 

Note the number of degrees of latitude included in Germany. Never¬ 
theless, owing to the difference in elevation, the southern plateau is about 
as cold in winter as the northern lowland. In summer, however, the 
southern part is warmer than the northern. But the valleys of the south, 
being low and inclosed, are warmer than the northern plain both in winter 
and in summer, and are therefore capable of producing such crops as 
tobacco and grapes. 

The increase in extremes of temperature toward the east, or away 
from the ocean, is illustrated on the coast. The North Sea is almost free 
from ice, while the Baltic ports are frozen over for a time; and the farther 

















GERMAN EMPIRE 


395 

east they lie, the longer their trade is arrested by the cold. What must 
be some of the results of this fact ? 

Forests. That the mountains of Germany are low enough to be 
well wooded, is indicated by the frequent use of the word wold (the 
German for wood) in the mountain names. Where the soil is poor, 
as in the stretches of sand deposited during the Ice Age, much of 
the lowland is also wooded. All together about one fourth of the 
surface of the empire is covered with trees. 

Ihe tendency of the German people to useful and sensible economy is 
well illustrated in their treatment of the woodlands. Instead of wantonly 
devastating them by tire and the ax, — as has been done in so many parts 
of our own country, — they maintain an excellent system of forest culture. 
Trees are planted in place of those that are cut for timber, these are given 
proper care, and thus the woods continue to be abundant. By this system, 
also, forest culture becomes profitable. It is partly due to the encourage¬ 
ment received from the success in Germany, that national forests have 
been established in various parts of the United States, and schools of 
forestry founded, as in New York, for the purpose of studying how to 
care properly for our woods. 

Agriculture and Grazing. — On the whole, Germany has not a 
fertile soil; but the farm products are very extensive, because the 
people are both industrious and intelligent, and their method of cul¬ 
tivating the soil is excellent. What countries may well be contrasted 
with them in this respect? 

More than one third of the population are dependent for their 
living upon agriculture, the leading industry of the nation. Ger¬ 
many is one of the most important grain-producing countries of 
Europe; but here rye replaces wheat as the principal grain. Pota¬ 
toes, introduced from America, are raised in such quantities that, like 
rye, they form one of the principal foods. These two crops are ex¬ 
tensively cultivated, both because they are a cheap food, and because 
they flourish in the light soil and cool summer climate, characteristic 
of so much of Germany. Sugar beets, hay, oats, and barley are other 
important crops of the northern plains, while in the Rhine and other 
warm, sheltered valle} r s of the south, hops, tobacco, and grapes are 
raised in large quantities. 

Since much of the lowland is too sandy for cultivation, and much of 
the highland too rugged, it is not surprising that one sixth of all the 
surface consists of natural pasture. Cattle for beef and for dairy purposes 


396 


EUROPE 


are kept in nearly all parts of the empire, but especially in the damper 
climate of the west. 



Mining. —Next to Great Britain, Germany is the greatest mining 
country of Europe; and, as in the United Kingdom, her most valu¬ 
able minerals, coal and iron, often occur in the same region. Ger¬ 
many and Belgium together 
produce more zinc than all 
the rest of the world; and 
nearly half the silver obtained 
in Europe is mined in Ger¬ 
many. Much lead and copper 
also come from Germany. 

This country resembles our 
own in the wide distribution of 
its coal beds. The coal fields 
that were found in Belgium and 
northeastern France (p. 357) ex¬ 
tend into Germany in the neigh¬ 
borhood of Aachen ; and from 
this point eastward to the Bus- 
sian border there are several 
important coal fields. 

There are also immense salt 
mines, as at Stassfurt, north¬ 
west of Halle, from which are 
obtained not only table salt, but 
products used' in the manufac- 
Storks at Strassburg, — a familiar bird in Ger- Eire °f Soap, ill dyeing, bleach- 
many which builds nests on the chimneys. ing, glass making, and calico 

printing. The Germans employ 
thoroughly scientific methods in their mining work; and it is from them 
that other nations have learned many of the methods which are employed 
in reducing ores to metal. 


Manufacturing. brom the above facts we may expect to find 
Germany a great manufacturing country, with her manufacturing 
centers well distributed. Explain why. 

About a third of the inhabitants are dependent upon manufactur¬ 
ing, and in recent years Germany lias so advanced in this industry 
that she now ranks next to the United Kingdom in the quantity and 
excellence of her goods. 

The distribution of the coal and iron gives the key to the principal 




GERMAN EMPIRE 


397 


centers for iron manufacturing. The busiest section is along the 
Kliine, in the vicinity of Cologne, which may well be compared 
with northern England in the extent of its industries. A second 
center is about Dresden and Chemnitz, and a third at Breslau in 
the southeastern corner of the empire. As in other countries so 
far studied, the textile industries are best developed near the coal 
fields. Therefore the sections mentioned above are distinguished 
for cotton, woolen, and silk factories as well as for iron. 

The extensive forests partly account for a third occupation of 
many sections; namely, the manufacture of furniture, paper, and 
other articles made of wood. 


The map (Fig. 375) shows no cities south of Breslau; yet a busy 
manufacturing center exists there. The explanation is that the people 
carry on this work largely in their own homes, instead of in factories. 
Living in a hilly country, where agriculture is not very profitable, they 
spin and weave the flax and wool raised near by. They also make lace and 
carve wood; but, although villages stretch for miles along the valleys, 
there are no large towns. 

The manufacture of spirituous liquors is another prominent German 
industry. A portion oi the immense potato crop is made into spirits, and 
also some of the beets. But beer, in which barley and hops are used, is 
the common beverage, hrom the grapes of southern Germany much wine 
is manufactured, though not nearly so much as in France. 


h or a long time nearly all sugar was obtained from sugar cane, although 
maple trees supplied a small amount; but German chemists found a means 
of extracting sugar from beets. By improving the process, and by de¬ 
veloping the beets until they contained more sugar, the great industries of 
sugar-beet raising, and the refining of beet-root sugar, have been made 
possible. Each year this source of sugar has been proving a more formi¬ 
dable rival to sugar cane, until now a large part of the sugar consumed in 
Europe, and much of that used in North America, is obtained from 
sugar beets. One important reason why this industry has thrived is that 
sugar beets grow in a cool, temperate climate where population is dense 
and markets are numerous. 

Formerly Germany had to rely upon foreigners for sugar; but since 
the development of this industry, beet sugar has become one of its greatest 
exports. Nevertheless, the population is so dense and so many are en¬ 
gaged in manufacturing, that, like the British, the Germans cannot raise 
all the food they need. Therefore much food, such as wheat and meat, as 
well as raw materials for manufacture, such as cotton, wool, and silk, 
must come from abroad. 


Germany’s Rapid Advance.—No European country in the last 


398 


EUROPE 


quarter of a century has experienced such rapid growth as Germany, 
tor example, in the twenty-five years preceding 1895 her increase 
in population was over 11,000,000, while France had an increase 

of only 2,500,000. Ihe empire has had a corresponding gain in 
wealth. 


Undoubtedly the strong central government established in 1871, and 
with it the laying aside of the petty jealousies that paralyzed industries, 
is one cause of this advance. But there are many other causes, of which 
one of the most influential is education and the encouragement of science. 
Every German child is forced by law to attend school; and careful atten¬ 
tion is given to the study of the various industries, foreign products, lan¬ 
guages, etc. In the higher commercial and technical schools young 
men obtain excellent preparation for various kinds of business, while 

m many other countries there is little or no provision for such 
education. 

The value of scientific work is fully recognized and encouraged by the 
government; and that such encouragement is profitable to the nation is 
proved by the wonderful development of the sugar industry, the mines 
and the factories. Not many years ago much of the manufacturing was 
cone by hand; but now the best machinery has been introduced, and 

Germany is one of the three leading manufacturing nations of the world. 
.Name the other two. 

Colonies and Emigrants. — The recent acquisition of foreign territory is 
an indication of the growth of Germany. The empire is now in possession 
of extensive areas in the island of New Guinea, north of Australia, and 

(Fig°354) eaSt and W6St AfnCa ’ as wel1 as smaller colonies elsewhere 

Many Germans have emigrated to various parts of the New World 

fully five million emigrants have come to the United States within the 

last seventy-five years, while the British Isles have sent us not quite seven 

mi lion. Naturally many of the German emigrants to other countries 

have kept up trade with their fatherland, and have thereby increased the 
commerce of Germany. 


Principal Cities and their Commerce 

After the preceding statements, it may not be surprising to learn 
that the leading German cities have experienced as rapid a growth 
as lose of America. In the twenty years between 1870 and 1890 
or example, Berlin had a more rapid growth than New York, and 
at c ed as many actual new residents as Chicago. In 1875 Boston had 
almost a hundred thousand more inhabitants than Hamburg; but 


GERMAN EMPIRE 


399 



now Hamburg has two hundred thousand more than Boston. Other 
German cities have increased, and are still increasing, in population 
at much the same rate. 

Berlin. — The position of Berlin, on a small river (Fig. 374) on 
the North German plain, midway between the coast and the high¬ 
lands, may not at first seem advantageous. But the Oder and some 
of the tributaries of the Elbe approach so near each other in this 
section that they have easily been united by canal. Thus Berlin has 
water connection with both Hamburg and Stettin, as well as with 


all parts of these two river systems, — a very important aid in 
obtaining fuel, food, etc., for the city. Observe also (Fig. 375) 
that Berlin lies on the direct route from Hamburg to Breslau, and 
from Stettin to Leipzig, and that other large cities surround it. 
It is, moreover, on the route of several great European railways, and 
is therefore one of the important railway centers of the continent. 

With such excellent connections, by water and by rail, Berlin has 
naturally become one of the great manufacturing cities. Fully half 
the residents are supported by this industry, which includes brewing, 
the manufacture of fancy articles, clothing, machinery, etc. Besides 


Fia. 370. 

The Dresden Art Museum. 


























400 


EUROPE 


l-)011^I^ t!l0 capital of Prussia and of the German Empire, Berlin is 
the center of German banking. It is noted for its art and music, 
and for its great university, the largest in the empire. There are a 
number of suburbs, one being Potsdam (Fig. 374), the German 
“ Versailles,” in which are located several royal palaces. 

Interior Cities near Berlin. — Among the cities not far from Berlin 
is Leipzig, the fourth largest in the empire. It is situated at the 
junction of two small streams, at a point where roads from the high¬ 
land meet those from the lowland. Formerly it was a center for 
wagon roads, and now it has naturally become a railway center. 
Owing to its favorable position, Leipzig is, next to Berlin, the most 
important trade center of Germany. One of its leading articles of 
commerce is fur. It is the seat of a noted university, and a center 
for the German book trade. 

Dresden, southeast of Leipzig, is noted for its art museum (Fig. 



Fig. 371. 

A castle on the Rhine. 







GERM A N EMPIRE 


401 


Bremen and Stettin 
also admit large vessels, 
and are the chief rivals 
of Hamburg; but they to¬ 
gether have less than one 
half as much commerce as 
Hamburg. In what respect 
are they less favorably 
situated for commerce than 
Hamburg? 

Name other Baltic ports 
besides Stettin. Which is a 
natural outlet for wheat from 
Russian Poland ? Estimate 
the distance saved to the Baltic ports by the construction of the Kaiser 
Wilhelm canal, which is sixty-one miles in length. 


The Cologne Cathedral, one of the most beautiful 
Gothic edifices in the world, was begun in 1248 and 
completed in 1880. 



•°>T0), which rivals the Louvre of Paris. The beautiful Dresden 
china is made in this vicinity, and in recent years much manufactur¬ 
ing lias developed, for Dresden is situated on a navigable river and 
has coal near at hand. It is, moreover, the capital of Saxony, the 
most densely settled German state. 

Seaports. Hamburg, which is rapidly growing in population, is 
the second city in Germany and the most important seaport on the 
continent. The reasons 
for this are clear when it 
is known that the estuary 
of the Elbe (Fig. 375) 
makes an excellent har¬ 
bor, usually free from ice, 
and that Germany has 
an extensive foreign 
trade. Name some articles 
which that port probably 
receives from the United 
States. What water con¬ 
nections has Hamburg 
with the interior ? 


iTa. 372. 


Cities along the Rhine. — On ascending the river into Germany 
we come to the great manufacturing region already mentioned 
(p. 397). What cities are there? Cologne, the largest, with a 































402 


EUROPE 


population of more than a third of a million, is on the river bank. 
It is a great shipping point, since railways cross the river, and boats 
from London and other places are able to ascend to this point. 

Elberfeld and Barmen have textile manufactories; Essen is famous 
for the Krupp steel works; Krefeld is an important silk manufac¬ 
turing town; Aaciien (Aix-la-Chapelle in French) manufactures woolen 
cloth. 

Just beyond the great bend in the Rhine is Frankfort, on a 
navigable tributary, the Main, along, which lies the easiest route from 
the Rhine valley to the Danube. Since the railway from the German 



Fig. 373. 


A scene in Frankfort. 

plain to the upper Rhine passes Frankfort, it is a center of important 
trade routes, and therefore one of the leading trading and banking 
centers in western Germany. It has long been a prominent city and 
was the capital of the old German Confederation (p. 390). 

Railways to the Danube pass through Munich, the capital of the. 
kingdom of Bavaria. Although so far to the south, and so distant 
from coal, Munich is the third city in size in the realm. It is on the 
trade routes from Germany to Italy and to Austria, and is accord- 
























































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Fig. 375. 


Map Questions: Switzerland. — (1) Wliat countries surround Switzerland? 
(2) From which one is it least separated by mountains? (3) What large rivers rise 
among the Alps ? In what directions do they flow ? (4) Notice the lakes among the 

Alps. (5) How does the area of Switzerland compare with that of your own state? 
((>) What reasons can you suggest for so small a nation remaining independent in the 
midst of powerful countries? 






















































SUGGESTIONS 


403 


ingly an important railway center. Much of its renown is due to its 
art collections and its art industries, such as work in bronze, gold, 
silver, glass painting, and porcelain manufacturing. 

North of Munich, on the road to Berlin, is Nuremberg, a city 
widely known for its careful preservation of the old art and architec¬ 
ture that made it famous in former centuries, and for its present 
manufacture of toys. 

Review Questions.— Give (1) the area of Germany; ('2) the population; 

(3) the boundaries- (4) What advantage does Germany’s position give her for 
European trade? Tell about (5) the early condition; (6) the government; 
(7) preparation for war; (8) physiography; (9) rainfall; (10) temperature; 
(11) forests; (12) agriculture ; (13) grazing; (14) mining; (15) manufacturing. 
(46) Give some of the causes for Germany’s recent advance. (17) What about 
the growth of German citiesV Tell (18) about Berlin; (19) cities near Berlin; 
(20) the seaports. (21) What about cities along the banks of the Rhine? 
(22) Give reasons for the importance of Munich. 

Suggestions. — (1) People often assert that the peace of Europe is preserved 
by extensive preparation for war; in what sense can this be true? (2) What 
must be some of the benefits of two years of active training in the army, aside 
from preparation for war? What some of the disadvantages? What relation has 
this to emigration ? (3) What is the size of our standing army? Why so small ? 

(4) Show that Germany in her industries resembles Great Britain, while contrast¬ 
ing with Russia and Norway. (5) Find out something about Goethe, Schiller, 
Humboldt, Emperor William the First, Bismarck, Von Moltke, Wagner, and 
Schumann. 





Fig. X. 

Caldera in the Eifel region of Germany. This is a region of extinct volcanoes; but they 
have become extinct so recently that lakes still occupy their craters. 

28 —.\ G 











§tlp 
i%fS§ 


A deep, narrow gorge in the Alps. There are potholes just above the path on the left, 
showing that the stream bottom was once at that level. This gorge is being rapidly 
deepened. h & 



IX. SWITZERLAND 



Physiography and Climate. —This is a very mountainous country 
(Figs. 375-379), for the Jura Mountains are on the northwestern 
border, while the Alps occupy the southern half. Between these 
two mountain systems, which extend northeast and southwest, is a 
low, hilly plateau, from 
one to two thousand feet 
in altitude. About one 
third of Switzerland is in¬ 
cluded in the plateau belt. 

In so rugged a country one 
would not expect to find 
a large population ; yet 
Switzerland is almost as 
densely settled as France, 
and much more so than 
the state of New York. 

It is evident that the 
temperature of this moun¬ 
tainous country must be 
low, and that it must vary 
greatly with the altitude. 

This is well illustrated in 
the Alps, at whose base 
are found chestnut and 
walnut trees, which are re¬ 
placed higher up by beech, 
maple, and other trees of the cool temperate zones, and still higher 
by a belt of evergreens. Above these come dwarfed trees, shrubs, 
grass, etc. ; and higher still, at an average elevation of about nine 
thousand feet above sea level, the snow line is reached. 


Fig. 376. 


A glacier in the Swiss Alps. 


The numerous lofty mountains, rising in the path of the prevailing 
westerlies, cause Switzerland to be one of the wettest countries on the con- 

405 










406 


EUROPE 


tment. On the higher mountains much snow falls, and as this does not all 
melt in the summer it slowly accumulates in the upper valleys to pro¬ 
duce streams of ice, or glaciers (Fig. 376). These move slowly down the 
valleys until they reach a point below the snow line where the ice melts. 
They there deposit terminal moraines, which, though smaller, resemble the 
moraines made by the continental glaciers of the Ice Age (p. 14). The 
Rhone and many other rivers are supplied with water by the melting of 
the Alpine glaciers. 



Fig. 377. 

A Swiss peasant costume. 

fore, German-speaking people are 
of the population. The approach 
the French population constitutes 
6 per cent speak Italian. 


But while there is one stable 
government there is not one com¬ 
mon language. The country is most 
open toward the north, for the 
plateau of Switzerland merges into 
that of Germany. Naturally, there- 
most abundant, making up-72 per cent 
from France is much more difficult, and 
only 22 per cent of the whole, while but 


People and Government.— People who dwell among mountains 
develop a spirit of independence, as is illustrated by the story of 

William Tell. Thus we find that, 
as early as 1291, an agreement 
was made among a few of the 
small Swiss states, or cantons , 
for mutual protection against op¬ 
pression. Many a time since then 
foreigners have attempted to 
conquer the Swiss ; but, aided by 
the difficult approaches to their 
country, and by the mountain 
fastnesses to which they could 
retreat, they have been able to 
maintain their freedom, although 
the entire area of the country is 
only one third that of Pennsyl¬ 
vania. Their-twenty-two cantons, 
united somewhat as are our own 
states, now constitute a republic, 
the neutrality of which is guar¬ 
anteed by the Great Powers of 
Europe. 



SWITZERLAND 


407 


Farming. — Owing to the mountainous condition, only one acre 
in nine is lit for the plow. Yet agriculture is the principal indus¬ 
try. On the lower lands grain, grapes, and the silkworm are raised, 
as in the neighboring countries ; and on the lower mountains dairy 
farming is important, as might be expected. The population is so 
dense, however, that much food must be imported, though some 
products, such as cheese and condensed milk, are exported. 

Manufacturing. — Switzerland is very poor in mineral deposits, 
and coal is entirely lacking. This scarcity of raw materials would 
suggest that there is little manufacturing, but the inference is false. 
That the Swiss possess marked mechanical skill is indicated by the 
remarkable wood carving for which they have long been noted. 
Like New Englanders, in spite of the absence of coal, cotton, and 
ore deposits, they have engaged extensively in the manufacture of 
light articles, such as textile goods, jewelry, etc. 



Fig. 378. 


A view of Lake Lucerne. The wall on the left bounds a road which is cut in the rock on 

the mountain side. 


The commercial position of Switzerland is advantageous, since it is 
entirely surrounded by densely populated countries which supply raw 
materials and furnish a market for manufactured goods. The influence of 
the latter fact upon the cities is very marked. 

Leading Cities.—The largest city, Zurich, on Lake Zurich, is 
an important railway center. The St. Gothard railway, which runs 
northward from Genoa and Milan, connects the city with Italy, while 
other railways bring it in touch with France, Germany, and Austria. 





408 


EUROPE 


These roads are especially important for the introduction of foods and 
raw materials for manufacture. Therefore Zurich is the center of 
one of the principal manufacturing districts, and is itself especially 
noted for the manufacture of silks, cotton, and machinery. 



The St. Gothard Tunnel (Fig.V), from which the railway takes its name, 
is a marvel of engineering skill. Before reaching the main tunnel several 
smaller ones are entered, through which the train winds in a spiral course, 
so that once or twice a passenger comes out of the mountain almost directly 
over the point where he entered it; and in some cases he can see far below 

him two places, one above 
the other, at which the train 
entered to follow its spiral 
course in the mountain rock. 
This is made necessary be¬ 
cause the grade is so steep 
that a train could not be 
drawn directly up a straight 
track. The main tunnel, 
which is nine and one fourth 
miles long, is quite straight. 
The Simplon Tunnel , a short 
distance west of the St. Goth¬ 
ard, also connects Switzer¬ 
land and Italy, and has a 
length of twelve miles. 
These tunnels, giving access 
to the raw-silk market of 
Italy, have aided in develop¬ 
ing silk making, the chief 
manufacturing industry of 
Switzerland. 


Basel, which forms 
the second center of popu¬ 
lation in Switzerland, is 
the busiest railway point 
in the country. It is on 
the main line of the St. Gothard railway, and on the Rhine where it 
enters Germany from Switzerland. Why is its position, near both 
France and Germany, favorable to manufacturing? 

Geneva, situated on the southwestern end of Lake Geneva, 
where the Rhone enters France, is a noted educational center. It is 
on a very ancient and important trade route from southern France 
to Germany (p. 362), and therefore has excellent railway connections. 


Fig. 370. 

The Matterhorn peak, one of the steepest in Switzer¬ 
land. 





SWITZERLAND 


409 


Water power is much used in generating electricity for use in manu¬ 
facturing, and the city makes jewelry and scientific instruments. 

Berne, the capital, is centrally located; but it is a small city 
because its situation for commerce is not favorable. 

Scenery and Tourists. — Many of the Swiss cities are beautifully situ¬ 
ated upon lakes, and within sight of mountain peaks always covered by 
snow. Lucerne, for example, is surrounded by most beautiful and varied 
scenery. The city is located upon Lake Lucerne, and lofty mountains 
rise in the immediate neighborhood (Fig. 378). Mts. Rigi and Pilatus 



Fig. 380. 

Lake Geneva, in a valley among the Alps. The Rhone River flows out of this lake. 

are near by, and from their summit one obtains a magnificent view of the 
lake, bordered by green meadows and numerous villages, over four thousand 
feet below; while in several directions, as far as the eye can reach, are the 
crests of stupendous, jagged mountains. The roads of Switzerland (p. 
410) are famous as examples of engineering skill, and of the wonderful 
enterprise of the people. On account of its scenery Switzerland is the 
most noted summer resort of Europe. 

Review Questions. — (1) What are the principal physiographic features? 
(2) IIow does the temperature vary ? (3) What about the rainfall? (4) fell 





410 


EUROPE 



Fig. 381. — A mountain road rising up the slopes of the Alps to one of the passes. The 
Rhone glacier is seen in the middle of the picture. Notice the stream that issues from 
it, and flows with numerous branches, or with a braided course, over the sediment 
that it brings from the ice. 


about the glaciers. (5) Give reasons why the Swiss ha-ve been able to maintain 
their independence. (G) What about their language? (7) What about raw mate¬ 
rials? (8) Give reasons for the development of manufacturing. (9) For what is 
Zurich important? (10) Tell about the St. Gothard Tunnel. (11) Tell about 
(a) Basel, ( b ) Geneva, (c) Berne. (12) Why do so many tourists visit Switzerland ? 


Suggestions. — (1) What other factors besides altitude cause great variety 
of climate in Switzerland? (2) How may the lakes act as filters and regulators 
for the rivers ? (3) The Rhone enters Lake Geneva laden with sediment derived 

from the glaciers; but it leaves the lake clear of sediment. By such deposits 
extensive deltas are built in all of the lakes. Of what value is that fact ? (4) What 

special reasons are there forgiving particular attention to the study of English and 
other foreign languages in the Swiss schools ? (5) Why has Switzerland, unlike 

many European countries, not come into possession of colonies ? (6) Find the 

meaning of referendum and popular initiative in Swiss legislation. (7) Why 
should Switzerland be selected as a place of refuge by persecuted people and politi¬ 
cal refugees from other nations? (8) Read that portion of the story of William 
'Fell which is supposed to have occurred about Lake Lucerne. 



X. ITALY 


Map Questions (tig. 375).— (1) Of what does the shape of Italy remind 


you.' (g) How does its latitude compare with that of Spain? (3) What neigh- 
l)oring islands belong to it? (4) Point out the principal river. (5) How are the 

, ^ afft.c t t he climate? (0) What countries 

border Italy? (7) What seas border the peninsula? (8) How does its position 


seem to be advantageous for commerce? 


Extent and Position. —- Italy is “ the very heart of the Mediterra¬ 
nean lands, and plays a great part as a link in the chain of com¬ 
munication between northwestern Europe and the Far East.” For 
example, mails from London to India go by rail to Brindisi in south¬ 
eastern Italy, and thence by steamer. What countries in Africa 
lie nearest to Italy? (Fig. 448.) Estimate the distance to them. 

The area of Italy, including the islands of Sicily and Sardinia, 
is only a little greater than that of Colorado, but its population is 
about 32,000,000. It is the smallest of the six Great Powers, but 
is the most densely populated of any except the United Kingdom. 
Name the Powers. 


People and Government-The inhabitants of Italy are a mixture 

of many peoples. In early times, the central position of the Italian 
peninsula was of importance in aiding the government at Rome to 
control the lands bordering on the Mediterranean Sea. At that time 
people from the surrounding lands of Europe, Asia, and Africa were 
brought to the peninsula, often as slaves captured in war. Later, when 
the power of the Roman Empire was weakened, hordes of barbarians 
invaded Italy. Nevertheless, the permanent settlers have invariably 
been won over to one language; and Italian, which is a growth out 
of the Latin of the ancient Romans, is now the universal tongue. 

For centuries Italy was broken up into a number of separate and 
independent kingdoms ; but here, as in other countries, the tendency 
of recent times has been toward unity. In 1800 several of the inde- 
pendent states united to form the kingdom of Italy ; and later others 
were added, until, in 1870, or about the same time that the German 
Empire was formed (p. 391), the present kingdom was established 
with Rome as its capital. Tike most of the European countries, 
Italy is governed by a limited, or constit' tional, monarchy. 

411 


412 


EUROPE 


Physiography and Climate. — The Italian peninsula is mountain¬ 
ous throughout most of its extent. In the north are the Alps, some 
of whose highest peaks are on the boundary line between Italy and 
Switzerland. The Alpine ranges curve around in northwestern 
Italy and join the Appennines, which extend the entire length of the 
peninsula and form its very backbone. The principal lowlands, 
therefore, are the narrow coastal plains and the broad Po valley. 

We think of Italy as a sunny land of flowers, although Milan and 
"Venice are on nearly the same parallel as Montreal. One reason for the 

pleasant climate is that the 
lofty Alps form a great wall 
which cuts off the cold north 
winds. Another reason is 
that the peninsula is under 
the equalizing influence of 
the Mediterranean, whose 
waters have a temperature 
of over 50°. On these ac¬ 
counts the Italian winters 
are mild, and in the extreme 
south the temperature 
seldom falls to the freezing 
point. 

Much of Italy has an 
abundance of rain ; but, ex¬ 
cept in the north, the 
greater part comes in 
winter. I he summer drought is due to the fact that the horse-latitude 
belt moves northward in summer (p. 248); therefore southern Italy at 
that season resembles southern Spain in climate. 



Fig. 382. 


An Italian team at Naples. 


Agriculture. Such a climate, together with a fertile soil, helps to 
explain why agriculture is the principal industry in Italy. Among 
the products are many that thrive in semi-tropical climates, as well 
as others that are common in the countries of northern Europe. The 
climate is so favorable that, by the aid of irrigation, from four to ten 
crops may be raised in a year. 


The most extensive farming district is the fertile plain of the Po basin, 
ihere is an abundance of rainfall; yet the people depend upon irrigation 
more extensively than in any other part of Europe. There are several 
reasons for such extensive irrigation. In the first place, the fact that the 
tributaries have their sources m the mountains, and often in the glaciers 
and snows of the Alps, insures a permanent supply of water to the gently 












ITALY 


413 


sloping land. Besides this, the rivers frequently flow through lakes — 

some of them among the most beautiful in the world —which act as great 
reservoirs for water supply. 


\\ here irrigation is so easy, the extensive cultivation of rice is 
possible. This is an important crop in northern Italy, but corn and 
wheat are raised in still greater quantities. Grapes are cultivated 
to such an extent that Italy ranks second among the wine-producing 



A herd of goats in the streets of Naples. These are driven about the 

houses, to he milked. 


city, and even into the 


countries of the world; and so many silkworms are reared that raw 
silk is the most valuable export of the country. Among the other 
important products are eggs, which are exported in large quanti¬ 
ties; also olives, oranges, lemons, flax, hemp, and wool. 

Mining and Fishing. — There is a little iron, zinc, and copper ore; but 
one of the most important mineral products is the sulphur of Sicily; indeed, 
until a few years ago this island produced most of the sulphur used in 
the world. Another important mineral product is marble of such rare 
beauty that it is prized the world over. 

The fishing industry is important. Among the peculiar products of the 
sea are precious coral and sponges. You will remember that we found 
sponge fishing important also among the Bahama Islands east of Florida. 






























414 


EUROPE 


Manufacturing.—As in Switzerland, electricity generated by 
water power supplies the place of coal to some extent. Conse¬ 
quently there is more manufacturing than one might infer from the 
lack of fuel. \\ hile much raw silk is produced, and there is some silk 
manufacturing, a large part of the silk is sent to France, Switzerland 



Fig. 384. 


and elsewhere, to be made into 
cloth. There are also factories for 
woolen, cotton, and flax weaving, 
and for other purposes. 

Most European countries take 
pride in their fine art galleries; 
hut Italy far surpasses them all 
and is the very storehouse of art, 
whether architecture, painting, or 
sculpture be considered. Accord- 
iHgljh the characteristic manufac¬ 
tured articles are those of an artistic 
nature, as glass work, lace, earthen¬ 
ware, statuary, wood carving, coral 
carving, and straw plaiting. In 
what other country have we found 
that the artistic taste of the people 
greatly affects their manufactures? 

Principal Cities. — Estimate the 
average width of the Italian pen¬ 
insula. Since it possesses many 


excellent harbors, we may expect 
The leaning tower of Pisa, which lias become f n nnmai.nno m ™ •.* 1 

tilted because of settling on one side. ^ mm numeiOUS large Cities along 

the coast, as in Great Britain. 

Naples and Vicinity .— I he most populous city is Naples, in 
the southern part of the peninsula. The semi-circular bay on which 
it is situated presents one of the most magnificent sights in the world. 
On the northwest is the city itself, rising, street above street, upon 
an amphitheater of hills ; toward the east is Mt. Vesuvius (Fig. 385), 
with the crests of the Appennines in the distant background ;mnnd on 
the southeast is a steep, rocky coast, behind which are numerous vil¬ 
lages paitly concealed among groves of orange, lemon, and palm trees. 


This is one of the most fertile sections of Italy, — thanks to the ashes 
that have been thrown out of Vesuvius, — and the agricultural population 
is one of the densest in Europe. The harbor, too, is good, so that there 










ITALY 


415 


is more shipping here than in any other Italian port with the exception 
of Genoa. But the secret of so large a city in this agricultural region is 
found partly in the peculiar character of the Italians, who feel a dread of 
isolated homes such as are common throughout the farming districts of 
the United States. Consequently they crowd into the villages and cities, 
even though they must travel a long distance to their field of work, or 
must suffer now and then from extreme want. 

5\ ithin plain sight of Naples stands Mt. Vesuvius, a cone of lava and 
ashes nearly a mile in height, from the crater of which volumes of steam 
constantly pour forth. At the time of Christ the slopes of this mountain 
were dotted with productive farms, while thriving towns spread over the 
country at its base. But in the year 79 an appalling eruption took place 



Fig. 385. 

A view of Vesuvius, with a«part of Pompeii in the foreground. 

which completely buried Pompeii, Herculaneum, and many villages beneath 
showers of ashes and streams of volcanic mud. Since then many erup¬ 
tions have been recorded, the last violent one occurring in 1872. During 
the last half century the buried cities, especially Pompeii, have been 
unearthed at great labor and cost. By these excavations much has been 
learned about the buildings and customs of the people who lived nearly 
two thousand years ago. 

At present, tourists daily ascend to the top of Vesuvius. There they 
see one of the most awful sights in the world when they cautiously 
approach to the very edge of the crater — an opening perhaps a fourth of 
a mile across — and peer down into the abyss. Reports like the thunder- 










416 


EUROPE 


ings of cannon come from far below, and lumps of lava as large as a man’s 
head are often hurled upward. Not seldom lava lumps rise above the 
mouth of the opening and fall here and there outside, making one’s visit 
all the more exciting by the slight danger of being hit. 

Ancient and Modern Home. — By far the most interesting spot in 
Italy is Rome, the “Eternal City,” long the capital of the ancient 
world, afterward of the empire of the Popes, and now of Italy. 

The site of Rome was well chosen. It lies near the center of the 
Mediterranean, and near the center of the Italian peninsula as well. 



Fig. 386. 

The Sistine Chapel, in the Vatican, where the Pope lives. 

In that part of Italy the fertile coastal plains are broad and are inter¬ 
sected by the Tiber, the largest river of the country except the Po. In 
that vicinity, also, the Appennines reach their highest altitude, which 
insures abundant water supply for the liber and for the plains. 
Moreover, the valley of the Tiber offers one of the most convenient 
routes across the peninsula. These are some of the advantages that 
attracted to ancient Rome a population of fully a million, and caused 
the surrounding country to be thickly settled and carefully tilled. 

























ITALY 


417 


Now, however, the city contains less than half as many inhabitants, 
while the neighboring plains for miles around, though beautiful pasture 
land, have scarcely a tree or a house upon them. The reason for this lack 
ot suburban life is the very prevalent malaria. At present, the country 
is ot use for little else than grazing; and as summer approaches even the 
herdsmen flee with their cattle and sheep to the mountains. 

But while agriculture and commerce do not flourish near Rome, fine 
residences, public buildings, art galleries, and notable ruins are numerous 
in the city. The dome of St. Peters — the largest and most famous church 
m the world —towers above everything else; and the Vatican, where the 
1 ope resides, is the largest palace in Christendom. In the Vatican are 
some of the finest and most beautiful of paintings (Fig. ,386). 



Fig. 387. 

Ruins of the Colosseum, at Rome. 

The ruins of ancient Rome vie in interest with these products of later 
Rome, and cover so many acres that the city is almost as much a tomb as a 
living city. The most conspicuous relic of the past is the Colosseum (Fig. 
887), a huge, oval-shaped theater, open to the sky, with seats for forty or fifty 
thousand persons. In the days of the Roman Empire it was used to witness 
life and death struggles between men, and between men and wild beasts. 

The Forum is another extensive ruin within the city limits. It was 
the great public square, on a lowland between some hills; but its monu¬ 
ments, arches, and other ornaments were covered with rubbish during the 
centuries succeeding the fall of the Empire. The excavation of this 
famous spot has not yet been completed, whole buildings, as well as 
smaller objects, having been buried in that locality. 

Other Italian Cities. — With the exception of Rome and Naples 
the large cities of the Italian peninsula are in the northern part. 











418 


EUROPE 


The principal city south of Naples is Palermo, the capital of Sicily. 
It is situated in the midst of extensive fruit groves. What fruits 
would you expect to find there? 

The first large city north of Rome is Florence, on the western 
base of the Appennines, at a junction of roads across the mountains. 
Straw plaiting, mosaic work, and silk manufacturing are important 
Florentine industries; and the city is famous for its art galleries. 

Milan, the leading city of northern Italy, owes its importance 
to its location at the crossing of roads running east and west in the 
Po valley, and north and south over the Alps. Turin has flourished 
for a similar reason. From very early times these cities have been 
impoitant trade centers because of their position at the crossing of 
trade routes in a fertile, densely populated valley. The railways 
across the Alps (p. 408) have greatly increased their importance. 

Milan possesses a magnificent cathedral built of white marble and 
adorned with more than a hundred spires and fully four thousand 
statues. On the wall of an old monastery in Milan is l)a Vinci’s famous 
painting, * The Last Supper,” copies of which are often seen in our 

homes. The city is the center of the silk trade, and manufactures much 
cutlery. 


Genoa, although separated from the Po valley by the low 
Appennines, is the natural port of Milan and Turin. Since it is a 
Port of outlet for so fertile a region, and is now connected with cen- 



Fig. 388. 

A view of a part of Venice. 













ITALY 


419 


tml Europe by railway (p. 408), this city is tlie most important sea¬ 
port in Italy. 

The principal seaport of the Adriatic is Venice, one of the most 
interesting European cities. When hordes of barbarians were invad¬ 
ing Italy, some of the residents retreated to a number of small islands 


in a lagoon, protected from the sea waves by low sand bars. 


The 



people developed into a hardy independent race, largely through 
contact with the sea. i heir very position forced them to become 
sailors; and the site of their city was favorable for commerce be¬ 
tween central Europe and the East. Protected from attack by land, 
V.e nice rose in 
power, and with 
power c a m e 
wealth. Many 
beautiful houses, 
churches, palaces, 
and museums are 
reminders of the 
ancient splendor. 


The city is built 
upon more than a 
h u n d red small 
islands, about two 
and a half miles 
from the mainland, 
with which it is 
now connected by 
railway. Naturally, 
canals take the place 
of streets. There 
are one hundred and 
fifty canals, the main 
one, or Grand Canal, being flanked on either side by fine residences, the 
steps of which lead down into the water. Nearly four hundred bridges 
join the different islands, and there are many narrow footpaths, but since 
the chief thoroughfares are canals, gondolas (Fig. 389) take the place of 
wagons, carriages, and street cars. No doubt thousands of children in 
that city have never seen a horse. 


Fig. 38i>. 

A gondola in Venice — the ducal palace, or palace of the Doges, 
is seen on the farther side. 


Review Questions.— (1) In what respects is Italy’s position favorable? 
(2) What about the size of the peninsula? (3) Tell about the origin of the people. 
(4) Tell about the government. (5) What are the principal features of the 
physiography? (6) What factors equalize the temperature? (7) Tell about the 


29—A G 
















420 


EUROPE 


rainfall. (8) What crops are raised? (9) Of what value is irrigation ? (10) What 

conditions especially favor it in the Po valley? (11) Name the leading agri¬ 
cultural products. (12) What mineral products come from Italy? (13) What 
other raw products? (14) What about manufacturing? (15) Write from mem- 

/!L a ^ bnef 1 description of Naples and vicinity, including Vesuvius and Pompeii, 
(lb) Give the reasons for the location of Rome. (17) What changes have oc¬ 
curred since the days of the Roman Empire ? (18) Tell the principal facts about 
each of the following cities: (a) Palermo, ( b ) Florence, (c) Milan, (d) Turin, 

{€) Genoa, (/) Venice. 


Suggestions. — (1) Why should Italy have been relatively much more im¬ 
portant in former times than now ? (2) What colonies has Italy in eastern Africa ? 

Suggest reasons why Italy has so few colonies. (3) What must have been the influ- 
“ ce ’J pon Gen oa and Venice of the discovery of the ocean route to India? Why ? 
G ) What must have been the influence of the opening of the Suez Canal ? Why ? 
(o) \\ ould you expect that Italy would have a large navy ? Find out how her navy 
ranks with those of the other five Great Powers ; with that of the United States. 
,(.) 1 Iei ' 1011 ^vantages and disadvantages of life in Venice. (7) Make a collec¬ 
tion of the different famous pictures of the Madonna. (8) Find out about the 
catacombs of Rome; the roads; the aqueducts. (9) Find out about some of 
the ancient Romans and Roman customs. (10) Ask some lawyer to tell you what 
influence Roman law has had upon our own law. 



the Italian coast near Amalfi, showing the houses clino-ina-tn tiia inn - a +i , 

built on the cliff side, and even tunneling through it - VZ a h, d s de = r° ad cut and 
stream delta. g tnr0ugh Jt ’ and Amalfi itself built on a small 








XI. AUSTIIIA-IIUNGARY 


Map Questions (Fig. 375). — (1) Compare Austria-Hungary with Germany 
in area. (2) Compare the two countries in population. (3) Compare the two 
in number of large cities. In which, therefore, would you expect to find most 
development? (4) About what proportion of the boundary is formed by water? 
(5) What countries border this empire? (0) What portions are mountainous? 
(7) What would you say about the variety of climate? (8) What sections do not 
belong to the Danube basin? 



Physiography and Climate. — A large proportion of the boundary 
line of Austria-Hungary is determined by mountain ranges. Point 
out these ranges. Notice that the Russian boundary extends across 
an open plain. This plain 
is Austria's share of 
Poland, a kingdom which 
once extended from the 
Baltic Sea to the Carpa¬ 
thian Mountains. Poland 
was conquered an d 
divided between Austria, 

Prussia, and Russia, Aus¬ 
tria receiving the smallest 
share and Russia the 
largest. 

Austria-Hungary is 
one of the most mountain¬ 
ous countries in Europe. 

Jt includes the eastern 
half of the Alps (Fig. 

390), besides several other 
ranges. These mountains 
together form a circle in¬ 
closing a broad plain (Fig. 391), through which the Danube River 
flows. At two points this circle is completely broken: once near 
Vienna, where the Danube enters the great Hungarian plain (Fig. 
375), and again on the southeastern boundary, where the river leaves 


Fig. 390. 

A street in a small Alpine village of western Austria. 


the plain. 


The Danube valley is the great trade route of Austria-Hungary, since 
it offers the best passageway through the mountains. The fact that the 

421 














422 


EUROPE 


river is navigable from Germany to its mouth adds greatly to the value of 
tins route. 

Transportation is all the more confined to the river route because of 
the peculiar coast line of Austria-Hungary. Although the country is next 
m size to Russia among European nations, it has only a small amount of 
coast. Estimate its length. There are numerous harbors, to be sure, but 
icy aie difficult of access from the interior, because of the rugged moun- 



Fig. 391. 

ilie Danube, where it flows through the Hun 


garian plain. 


tains that rise from the very seashore. At only two points on the Adriatic 

can gooc lai ors be reached from the Danube lowlands without difficulty 
What cities are located at these points ? 

l 11 !? 0 mountainous a country there is naturally much variation both in 
however the temperature is favorable for the growth of frain and other 

Srf a^T^Sf\ Tl ‘ at the “ - wann^dlhe 

WhvT tu d ’ f b ‘ he , e * tremes are “cch greater than in England, 
y. . Ihe lamfall of the lowlands, which averages little ovpt- +■V + 

incies, is barely sufficient for agriculture, and the plains of Hungaryare 
subject to serious drought in summer. & ^ 


People and Government. - Such a rugged surface, with many in¬ 
closed valleys, separates the people and favors the development of 
very different customs amongst the inhabitants of different sections! 





A USTRIA - IIUNGA R Y 


423 


Moreover, the ease of approach from the north and east has led 
to repeated invasions from these directions. The result has been 
that the empire of Austria-Hungary is a mixture of many peoples. 
Germanic people, who form about a fourth of the entire popula¬ 
tion, are most numerous in Austria; while the Magyars, a race allied 
to the Mongolian, form nearly half the population of Hungary; 
but races related to the Slavs of Russia are more numerous than 
either of the other groups. There are, in addition, large numbers 
allied to the Italians and other peoples (Fig, 392). German is the 
official language and is spoken by the educated classes. 



There are at least a dozen languages in the empire, and often two or 
three are spoken in a single town. To be sure, a similar statement might 
be made in regard to the United States, for we certainly have a great 
variety of languages. Rut no matter from what part of the earth our 
citizens have come, they 
have, in most cases, greatly 
modified their former cus¬ 
toms and have become genu¬ 
ine Americans in spirit. The 
principal exception are the 
Chinamen, who, instead of 
identifying themselves with 
us, remain Chinamen as long 
as they live. 

The many distinct peo¬ 
ples of Austria-Hungary re¬ 
semble the Chinamen in their 
tendency to remain apart. 

They are not only dissimilar 
in religion, ambitions, and 
customs, hut their interests 
are often conflicting; and 
they are jealous and suspi¬ 
cious of, and often hostile to, 
one another. 

It has been a difficult 
matter to bring these peo¬ 
ple under a common rule. 

Nevertheless, in 1867, the 
Austrian Empire and the 

kingdom of Hungary were united under Emperor Francis Joseph to 
form the empire of Austria-Hungary. Each of the countries pre- 


Fig. 3!»2. 

A Gypsy family and hut in Austria-Hungary. 








424 


EUROPE 


serves its own constitution, makes its own laws, and is independent 
o the other in many respects, as was formerly the case in Norway 
and Sweden. But they work together in matters of common inter¬ 
est, such as the army and navy, foreign affairs, and finance. 

Natural Resources. Many of the mountain slopes are forest- 
covered, and in the remoter parts wild animals are still found. 
,-ince nearly one third of the empire is wooded, lumber forms one of 
the important resources of the country. 

Where the woods have been cleared away, there are pastures for 
s leep and goats. Cattle are also raised, especially on the lowlands. 

ear the Adriatic and in the warmer valleys there are many 
vineyards; and the mulberry is raised for the silkworm, as in 



Fig. 393. 

The Parliament building at Vienna. 


Italy (p. 413) and southern France (p. 359). Flax, hemp corn 
sugar beets, and tobacco are other important crops. But the grains’ 
especially wheat, rye, barley, and oats, are the staple agricultural’ 
pioducts of both Austria and Hungary. The broad plafns of the 
aini ie ( ig. 391) form one of the leading wheat-producing regions 

P onl like' tlm C ^ a T nt ° f thiS gfain " eX P° rted ’ si “<* ‘he 
people, like the Germans, live much upon rye bread. 

,, The , r f mineral wealth in the mountains, including deposits of 

2s r.”d7h, st- op *' u 












AUSTRIA-nUNGARY 


425 


supplies the material for the Bohemian glass blowers, who make some of 
the finest ware in the world. 

Iron is widely distributed, and Austria-Hungary ranks third 
among the coal-producing countries of Europe (Fig. 305). Some of 
the best deposits are in the northwest, near Prague, which explains 
why that city is extensively engaged in iron manufacturing. 

Manufacturing and Commerce.— Austria-Hungary does not manufac¬ 
ture nearly so much as Great Britain, Germany, or France. Owing partly 
to the poor facilities for commerce, and partly to lack of education and 
common interests among the people, there has been far less development 
of manufacturing than might be expected. 

Much of the manufacturing is still done either by hand or by very 
simple machines. But there has been great progress in recent years, and 



Fig. m. 


Cut showing a castle in Austria, a little village at the base of the hill, and a mill at the left. 
Notice the thick walls, formerly of use to protect the castle from attack. 

numerous cotton, woolen, Hour, and paper mills, iron manufactories, and 
beet-sugar refineries have been set up. There is also silk weaving. 1 he 
chief manufacturing region is in the northwest, next to Germany, while 
the principal agricultural section is in the central and eastern parts. 

There is an extensive internal commerce along the rivers and the rail¬ 
ways ; but, owing to the limited coast line, ocean commerce is much less 
developed than in other large European nations. 












426 


EUROPE 


ihe most natural trade route leads either down the Danube into the 
black Sea or else westward into Germany, and thence down the Rhine 
valley. Why in these directions? Less than one third of the foreign 
s upping goes by way of Trieste. This means that the greater part of the 
foreign trade of the empire is carried on through foreign ports. What dis¬ 
advantages do you see in that fact ? Trace the chief routes. 


Principal Cities. — While there are many small cities in this em¬ 
pire, there are surprisingly few large ones. The two largest, Vienna. 
the capital of Austria, and Budapest, the capital of Hungary, are 
on the Danube River and not on the seacoast. Suggest reasons. 

Vienna, which is larger than Philadelphia, is the greatest city in 
Austria-Hungary and the fourth largest in Europe. The reason for 
its size is found first of all in its location, on a large river in the cen¬ 
tral part of Europe. Moreover, it is situated at an openiim be¬ 
tween mountains, through which, from the earliest times, the^best 
routes have passed from western Europe to Asia, and from northern 
uiope to the Mediterranean. The railways which lead from St 
Petersburg to Rome, and from Berlin and Paris to Constantinople* 

converge toward this point, making the city a great railway and 
trade center. 

Budapest, consisting of two towns (Buda and Pest) on opposite 
binks of the Danube, is the seat of the Hungarian government and 
the home of the emperor for a part of each year. The city is in the 
midst of the great wheat-raising plains of the Danube, and, like 
dessa on the Black Sea, is engaged in flour manufacture and grain 

Prague, the third city of Austria-Hungary, is situated on the navigable 
Elbe which since early times has been an important trade route. Located 
tie midst of a rich mineral region, it is a noted manufacturing center 
Trieste:, a cty about the size of St. Paul, Minnesota, is the lakest in ' 
tnan seaport. Although separated from the main part of the country bv 
mountain ranges, it is connected with the interior by a railway Even as 
far back as the time of the Romans, the pass which the railway takes in 
mossing the mountains was followed as the route of entrance to the Danube 

vadey. Fjume, southeast of Trieste, has an excellent harbor. 

• t ■ g 111 ’ 6 ’- * 1,1 ^ ie boundary between Austria and Switzerland 

Liechtenstein, a very small independent country united with Austria Him 

fonkXVart °of S Turke y ' T "° ° the ‘' r ° U,,t, ' ies > Bo!snia a ‘«l Herzegovina, 
loimeiiy parts ot Turkey, are now practically a part of Austnn-RiLu,. 

and are therefore not marked separately on our maps. They includf the 
mountainous land northwest of Montenegro and Servia 7 


•1 VST11IA-HUNG A It r 


427 


y'" :ST ' ON ' s - — (1) Tell about the physiography of Austria-Hungary. 
(-) e .1 lout the climate. (.'!) \\ hat is the condition of the people? (I) What 
a lout the government ? (5) Name the principal raw product. (0) What is the 
condition of manufacturing? (7) What about the commerce? (S) Give reasons 
for the location of Vienna. (!)) Tell about the following cities : („) Budapest, 
(i) 1 rague, (c) 1 rieste, (d) Fiume. (10) What is said about small countries? 

Suggestions. - (1 ) How must the construction of tunnels through the Alps 
have affected Austria-Hungary? (2) What would you say as to the relative im¬ 
portance of the Danube and Rhine rivers? (3) Find some Bohemian glass to see 
how beautiful it is. (4) In an atlas look up Austria-Hungary to find the portions 
which are called 1 yrol, Moravia, Bohemia, and Transylvania. (5) Look up .some 
facts about the history of Poland. (6) Suggest reasons for the absence of Aus¬ 
trian colonies. (<) Find out something about the Triple Alliance. (8) Read 
about the influence .of Kmperor Francis Joseph in holding the different parts of 
the empire together. (9) Find out something about Kossuth. 



Fig. AA. 

Swiss house near the timber line in the Alps. The abundance of wood leads to the building 
of wooden houses. 'I lie strong winds make it necessary to weight down the roofs with 
large stones. Rough-hewn hoards are used in these houses. In parts of Europe where 
wood is scarce, as in Italy, wooden houses are very rare. 







XTT. THE BALKAN PENINSULA 


Map Questions (Fig. 375).— (1) What countries border Roumania? 
(2) Name the country south of the Danube. (3) What does the map tell you 
about the surface of each? (4) What may you expect about the valuations in cli¬ 
mate on this peninsula? Why? About the rainfall? Why? (5) Compare the 
number of large cities with the number in Germany and Italy. What inferences 
do you draw concerning the condition of the people ? (6) Compare the area of 

Turkey in Europe with that of your own state. 

Physiography and Climate. — This double-pointed peninsula is 
bounded on one side by the Adriatic and Mediterranean seas, on the 
other by the iEgean and Black seas. It is unlike other European 
peninsulas in having a very long land boundary. Trace it. 
Ihroughout almost its entire extent the surface is mountainous, 
which offers an explanation of the large number of separate countries 
on the peninsula. How ? Many of the valleys are suitable to ag¬ 
riculture, the most extensive being the plains of the Danube in 
Roumania and Bulgaria. 

The climate varies greatly from mountain to valley and from in¬ 
terior to seashore. Along the southern coast the winters are mild, 



Fig. 395. 

A view in Bulgaria, showing its rugged surface. 

428 







SER VIA, ROUMANIA , AND BULGARIA 429 

as elsewhere near the Mediterranean; but in the northeast, near Rus¬ 
sia, hot summers are followed by cold winters, when icy winds sweep 
down from the Russian steppes, and the Danube freezes over. 

In so mountainous a land there is also much variation in rainfall. 

n the western slopes, for example, near the shores of the Adriatic, 
there is an abundance of rain ; but on the 

east coast and in the interior valleys, es¬ 
pecially in Greece, there is so little rain 
that agriculture depends upon irrigation. 

^ by is this true of Greece particularly ? 

(p. 321.) 

People. —The eastern point of the Balkan 
Peninsula comes so close to Asia that it has 
been called a u bridge ” between Europe and 
Asia. At each of two points, the Dardanelles 
and the Bosporus, the continents are sepa¬ 
rated only by a narrow strait. This region 
has also been a bridge for the passage of many 
peoples. Romans, various tribes of Slavs, 
and finally the Mohammedan Turks from 
Asia, have brought the peninsula under their 
dominion. Wherever the Turks went they brought ruin; and for four 

centimes, while the rest of Europe was advancing, they held this region 
in subjection. . ° 

Aside from Roumania, five nations now occupy the Balkan Penin¬ 
sula: Montenegro, Servia, Bulgaria, the Ottoman Empire or Turkey, 
and Greece; and two others, Bosnia and Herzegovina, are under 
control of Austria-Hungary (p. 420 ). 

Montenegro.— This tiny principality, which is smaller than the state 
or Connecticut, has maintained its independence largely because of its sit- 
nation among the mountains. The country is of slight importance; its 
sod is so poor that there is little agriculture; there is less manufacturing 
and not a single railway. The principal occupation is cattle raising. 

Servia. — Bordering on southern Hungary, Servia shares some of 
the advantages of that country, including navigation of the Danube. 
Since much of its surface is rugged and heavily forested, only a 
small portion is cultivated. Among the leading products are corn, 
wheat, and other grains, reminding us of Hungary. There is also 
much fruit raising, particularly that of grapes and plums, which, 
when dried, are sold as raisins and prunes. Many cattle, sheep, and 


Fig. 390. 

A Roumanian peasant. 










480 


EUROPE 


pigs are raised for export, the pigs being allowed to roam in the oak 
and beech forests. Why there ? 

The resources of Servia are only partially developed. For example, 
although coal, iron, lead, silver, and other metals are known to exist, 
there is very little mining and not much manufacturing. It will 
require more time to recover from the centuries of Turkish misrule. 

The capital of the kingdom is Belgrade, a city finely situated 
upon the Danube. 

Roumania and Bulgaria. — These two countries have much in 
common. Although the Danube separates them for a long distance, 
they together control its lower course. This is a fact of much im¬ 
portance to Austria-Hungary. Why ? Broad plains suited to agri¬ 
culture border the Danube in both countries, though the plains are 
far more extensive in Roumania than in Bulgaria. Naturally, there¬ 
fore, there is much farming. \\ hile each of these kingdoms has been 

freed from Turkish rule, Bulgaria 
is still tributary to that country; 
that is, although in most respects 
independent and self-governing, it 
is obliged to pay an annual tribute 
in money to Turkey. 

In both countries wheat and 
other grains are grown. But the 
warmer climate of that part of Bul¬ 
garia south of the Balkan Mountains 
permits the culture of products that 
cannot be raised extensively in 
Roumania; for example, the mul¬ 
berry for silk, and roses for the valu¬ 
able perfume, attar of roses. Many 
sheep as well as other live stock are 
raised in each country ; in fact, herd¬ 
ing is almost the sole industry on 
a lurkish lady m Constantinople, in the barren steppes of eastern Rou- 

street aress. # 

mama. There are large tracts of 
forest in each, but there is more in Bulgaria, owing to its rugged 
surface, than in Roumania. Each country has valuable mineral de¬ 
posits ; but, as in Servia, there is little mining. Why? Nor is 
there much manufacturing, except such hand work as the manufac¬ 
ture of Turkish rugs. 









I 


TURKEY 


431 


With so slight development of the resources, there are few large 
cities. By far the largest is Bucharest, the capital of Roumania. 
Find the capital of Bulgaria. 

Turkey in Europe.— The Turks, who are Mohammedans, are 
controlled by ideas very unlike those of other Europeans. They are 
""Progressive and inclined to grant no rights to Christians, many 
of whom still live in Turkey. Their ruler or Sultan has absolute 
power, which lit* exercises with little conscience, and the government 
is the worst in Europe. 

Not only are the mass of Turks in ignorance and poverty, but they 
are not encouraged to develop the resources of their land. There are 
valuable mineral deposits, practically unworked; the great forest tracts 
have been nearly destroyed; and broad areas of farm land are cultivated 
by the use of oxen and 
tame buffaloes, and by the 
crude methods of early 
centuries. Among the prin¬ 
cipal crops are wheat, porn, 
flax, hemp, and tobacco. 

Figs, and grapes for raisins, 
are also raised. Cattle and 
sheep are numerous. 

As in other slightly 
developed states, there is 
little production beyond 
raw materials; and while 
other nations in Europe 
have rapidly developed in 
manufacturing, Turkey 
produces chiefly hand-made 
goods. Among the latter 



Map showing the location of Constantinople. 


are the famous Turkish rugs, and some very beautiful articles in leather 
and metal, showing that the Turks have much artistic skill. With so 
little industry there is naturally almost no means of transportation; in 
fact, the roads are everywhere bad, and railways are almost lacking. 

( onstantixople, the capital of the Ottoman Empire, has been 
famous for many centuries. Being situated on the Bosporus, where 
the beautiful, river-like outlet of the Black Sea passes through a 
valley in the low plateau, it commands the channel through which 
the commerce of the Black Sea must pass. This is a natural site for 
a city ; for in addition to its location on this water route, it is the 
point where the crossing can best be made from Europe to Asia. 
The presence of a harbor on the European side — a small bay at the 



432 


EUROPE 


river mouth called the “ Golden Horn ” — and the fact that the 
founders were Europeans trading in Asia, rather than Asiatics 
trading in Europe, are reasons why a large city has grown on the 
European and not on the Asiatic side. 

Greece.—The southern end of the Balkan peninsula is occupied 
by Greece. Owing to the many short mountain ranges extending in 
different directions, the coast line is irregular, with numerous penin¬ 
sulas, islands, deep bays, and fine harbors, formed by the sinking 
of the irregular land. The influence of the Mediterranean causes a 
warm, pleasant climate, as in southern Italy ; and the rainfall, which 
is moderate in winter, is so light in summer that irrigation is neces¬ 
sary for agriculture. The surface is so rough and rocky that large 
sections are unfit for farming. 

It was in this small peninsula, under what to our eyes appear 
to be'very unfavorable conditions, that the marvelous civilization of 
ancient Hellas , or Greece, was developed. But these conditions 
really had the tendency to develop strong intellectual powers and 
brave men. The sea and mountains protected the races from in¬ 
vasion, and the many fine harbors and inlets permitted constant 



r-A-VV 


Fig. 399. 


St. Sophia, a beautiful church in Constantinople, now used as a Mohammedan mosque. 





GREECE 


433 


intercourse by water. By the commerce which thus arose the 
Greeks became so acquainted with the sea that they were almost as 
much at home upon it as upon the land. 


th -" pa,tS °! the , world 14 been under such conditions as these 

British' m JT* Z T dev ®’°l Jed - lt true in Scandinavia, in the 
he 1 ’ ?f e , Sl f n,sh a,,d Italia “ Peninsulas. It is also true in 

lt P a"ro S r dS ’ ‘n r! 101116 ° f the Inost hi 8 hl y developed Asiatics. 
Ilecause of them ability to navigate the inland seas, the European 

Gieeks, m very early times, carried on constant communication with the 

people from whom they had separated, and who still dwelt opposite them, 

t ie coast of Asia. The arts and customs of their mother country they 
niipioved upon, and in time became the 


gieatest power in the then known 
world. They developed an art and a 
civ ilization which, with all our advance¬ 
ment, we have not been able to excel. 

Ihey also became explorers, and cruised 
about the entire shores of the Mediter¬ 
ranean at a time when most of Europe 
was occupied by savages or barbarians. 

They entered into trade relations with 
their neighbors, taught them Greek arts, 
and established many colonies. Greek 
arts and literature, we should note, de¬ 
cayed with the loss of freedom in the 
Greek cities, which were conquered by 
barbarians from the north. 

Through colonies in the Italian pen¬ 
insula, and also through the immigration 
of individual Greeks, this people exerted 
a strong influence upon the Romans. 

Rome finally conquered Greece, 
although much of Roman civilization, and therefore the civilization of 
Europe, was due to Greek thought. After the decline of the Roman 
Empire other northern peoples devastated Greece, and finally the Turks 
.entered and carried ruin to this as to other parts of the Balkan Penin¬ 
sula. Greece is now independent and is a limited monarchy. 

In this little country there are few natural resources. The principal 
occupations are herding and agriculture. Large numbers of sheep and 
goats are raised; and the chief farm products are grain, tobacco, olives, 

and fruits. Raisin grapes are cultivated in large quantities on the steep 
hillsides. 1 

1 he neighborhood of the sea has led the Greeks to continue their sea- 
faiing life. Many are also engaged in fisheries, and in securing bath 
sponges from the shallow sea bottom among the Greek islands. 



Fig. 400. 

A Greek peasant costume. 





434 


EUROPE 


Athens, the capital and most important city, with about one 
hundred thousand inhabitants, is situated inland six miles from 
its port, Piraeus. The principal streets of the present city are 
quite modern, but ruins of the ancient Athens are still numerous. 
The most noted buildings, and some of the finest temples of ancient 



Fig. 401. 

A view of the Acropolis at Athens. The city lies back of the hill. 


Greece, stood upon the Acropolis (Fig. 401), a level-topped rocky 
hill with precipitous sides. This remarkable stronghold was the 
natural center for settlements in the surrounding plain. 

Islands near Greece. — The many islands in the neighborhood of Greece 
are either mountain crests or else volcanic cones. Occasionally we hear of 
an earthquake shock in this island region or archipelago , showing that the 
mountains are still growing. The largest island near Greece, and the last 
to be separated from Turkey (1898), is Crete (Fig. 353), which, like the 
smaller islands, is under the control of the Grecian government and 
inhabited mainly by Greeks. The inhabitants are engaged in industries 
that are the same as in Greece itself. 


Review Questions. — (1) Describe the physiography of the Balkan penin¬ 
sula. ( 2 ) I ell about the climate. (3) State some of the main facts in its history. 
(1) Name the countries of the peninsula. (5) What can you say about Monte¬ 
negro? (6) Tell about Servia. (7) Tn what respects do Bulgaria and Roumania 
resemble each other? (8) Mention some differences. (9) Locate the capitals. 
(10) Tell about Turkey in Europe : character of the people ; government; resources ; 
manufacturing. (11) What special reasons are there for a large city at Constan¬ 
tinople? (12) Describe Greece: its physiography; climate; reasons for former 




REVIEW OF EUROPE 


435 


importance; influence; reasons for decline; present condition; resources. (13) Tell 
about Athens. (14) What can you tell about the islands near Greece.? 

Suggestions. (1) Y\ hat reasons can you suggest for the fact that these 
eastern countries are in a constant state of unrest? (2) The Turkish Empire is 
occasionally referred to as the “sick man of the East.” Why? (3) How was Greece 
well situated for the trade of the ancient world? (4) Learn some facts about 
llomer, Plato, and other noted Greeks. (5) Read some of the ancient Greek myths. 

REVIEW OF EUROPE AND COMPARISON WITH NORTH AMERICA 

lor area , population, etc., see Appendix 

(1) Compare the climate of western Europe with that of the west coast of 
North America (p. 321). (2) Make the same comparison for the east coast of 

ISorth America. (3) What European countries were covered either wholly 
or partly by an ice sheet in the Glacial Period? (Fig. 306.) (4) Ts the coast line 

of Europe more or less irregular than that of North America? Which continent 
has the advantage in this respect? IIow is it an advantage? (5) Name and 
locate the principal mountain ranges in each continent. Which continent has the 
advantage as to the direction of the ranges? Why? (p.323.) (G) Name and locate 
the principal rivers in each continent. Which are the largest? (7) Draw an out¬ 
line map of Europe, inserting the boundaries and names of the countries, (s) How 
do our larger Western states compare in area with France and Germany? In popu¬ 
lation r* (I)) \Y Inch are the two or three most progressive countries ? Give reasons. 
(10) \\ hat is the prevailing kind of government in Europe? In North America? 
IIow do you account for the difference? (11) Which European country has, per¬ 
haps, the best location for world commerce ? Why ? (12) Which is best situated 

foi continental commerce? A\ hy t (p. 390.) (13) \\ hich country of North Amer¬ 

ica has the most favorable position for trade? IIow? (14) Compare the five 
largest European cities with the five largest in North America. (15) State the 
main advantages of the position of each. (10) Name and locate the five largest 
seaports of Europe (Fig. 353). (17) IIow do they compare in population with 

New York, Philadelphia, Boston, Baltimore, and San Francisco? (18) Name and 
locate the five largest interior cities and compare their population with that of 
Chicago, St. Louis, Cleveland, Buffalo, and Cincinnati. (19) What cities of Europe 
and North America are near the 46th parallel of latitude? The 50th? The 60th? 
(20) Name some agricultural products common to both Europe and the United 
States. (21) Name others that are found in the United States but not in Europe. 
Why this difference? (22) In what countries of Europe is silk produced? Do 
we raise silkworms in the l nited States? (23) In what countries are.sugar 
beets produced extensively? (24) In what countries is most lumber obtained? 

(25) Make a list of the European countries which have extensive coal deposits. 

(26) Which countries have little or none? What is the effect on the industries in 
each, case? (27) W hich countries have little or no mining? (28) Which countries 
have important manufacturing industries? Which have very little? Give the 
reasons for this difference. (29) With which group would the United States be 
classed with regard to mining and manufacturing? (30) Which of the European 
nationalities have you seen represented on our streets? (31) Write a paper stating 
some of the advantages that we enjoy over European countries. (32) State some 
of the advantages that they enjoy over us. (33) Which one of the European 
countries would you prefer to visit? Why? 

For References, see Teacher's Rook. 

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CHEETAH 


ORANG-OUTANG 


CROCODILE 


PEACOCK 


BUFFALO 


CAMEL 


DROMEDARY 


RHINOCEROS 


TIGER 


JhE M NXO-.duFFALO. 


ELEPHANT 


Fig. 404. Some of the animals of Asia. 







Fig. 40."). 

The volcano of Fujiyama in Japan. 



Fig. 400. 


The gorge of the Yangtse-kiang in China. 


487 


< 
























Fig. 407. 

Native humped cattle used as draught animals in Burma. 



Fig. 408. 

Spinning as done in Palestine and other parts of Turkey. 


438 










pakt y 


ASIA, AFRICA, AUSTRALIA, AND ISLAND 

GROUPS 




I. ASIA 


Size and Position. — Asia, the largest of the continents, includes 
almost one third of the land of the globe. Its immense size is shown 
by the fact that it reaches from near the equator to a point halfway 
between the Arctic Circle and the North Pole. How many degrees 
is that? How many miles? It is six thousand miles from the 
Mediterranean Sea to Bering Straits ; and so many degrees of 
longitude are included in Asia that, according to our plan for stand¬ 
ard time, one would need to change his watch ten different times in 
going from one extreme to the other. Ilow many changes are neces¬ 
sary in crossing the United States ? (Fig. 38.) 


This great land mass, which reaches to within fifty miles of North 
America, is united to Africa by the Isthmus of Suez, while for a long 
distance the two continents are separated only by the narrow Red Sea. 
What is its connection with Europe? Why are the two often called 
Eurasia ? (p. 317.) In what zones does Asia lie ? Is the same true of 
any other continent? 


Physiography and Climate (Fig. 402). — Asia resembles Europe 
in the irregularity of its mountains. While many of them extend 
east and west, there are others running nearly north and south. 
Name some of each. The islands and peninsulas are due to uplift 
of the earth’s crust, while the seas which they inclose occupy depres¬ 
sions between the uplifted parts. Since the mountain growth has 
not ceased, many of the islands are still slowly rising or sinking; and 
as the rocks move and break, earthquake shocks are common, some 


4R9 



440 


ASIA 


of them being terribly destructive. There are also many volcanoes 
(Fig. 405) ; in fact, the islands off eastern and southeastern Asia 
form the most active volcanic and earthquake region in the world. 

Although northern and western Asia is a vast plain, so much of the 
continent is mountainous that more than one twelfth of the surface has an 
elevation above 10,000 feet. Here are found the Himalayas (meaning 
abode of snow), of which the loftiest peak, Mt. Everest (29,000 feet), is 
the highest in the world. Locate it. And here, too, are ranges with peaks 



Fig. 409. 

A tropical scene in a village in Ceylon. 


rising above valleys which are themselves 11,000 feet above the sea, or 
higher than most mountains. Between the mountains are tablelands, like 
that of Tibet, the elevation of which is from 10,000 to 15,000 feet, or in 
places as high as the loftiest peaks of the Alps. 

Much of central Asia is so arid that some of the rivers from the moun¬ 
tains end in the desert sands, which are often heaped by the wind into 
low hills or dunes. But from the margin of the great central highland 
large rivers flow north, south, and east to the sea. On an outline map of 
Asia draw heavy lines to show the chief mountain chains, and then add 
the large rivers with their names. Fed by the rains, snows, and melting 
glaciers of the mountains, these streams have a great volume of water and 
bear immense quantities of sediment, which they spread out over their 
broad flood plains or build into deltas in the sea. In the east and south 
these fertile, river-made plains are valuable for agriculture, and are the 
seats of the densest populations in the whole world. 

Many of the rivers are deep and navigable (Fig. 406) ; yet some of the 
largest lose much of their value for transportation because they flow north- 






PLANTS AND ANIMALS 441 

■\\anl over the cold plains of Siberia. This reminds us of the rivers of 
northern ( anada, which, also flow into the Arctic, and are therefore frozen 
during a large part of the year. 

In so vast a land, with such differences in elevation, there are, 
naturally, many different climates. I ropical heat is found in south- 
Asia, with dense forests in the belt of calms (Tig. 409^) and in 
those places where ocean winds blow over the land ; but where 
winds from the ocean cannot come, there are broad deserts. Upon 
the mountain slopes and in the more northern latitudes, the climate 
is either temperate or frigid, as in North America and Europe. 

lor example, the climate about Peking resembles that of northeastern 
United States; and the plains of central Siberia resemble in climate the 
plains of Minnesota and Dakota, and produce the same crops. Such a 
climate, with warm summers and very cold winters, is called continental; 
and since Asia is the largest continent, the continental climate is best 
•developed there. Thus where the 
Arctic Circle crosses the Lena 
liiver, the average temperature is 
GO 0 in July and (>0° below zero in 
January, a range of 120° between 
summer and winter. This is the 
lowest winter temperature known 
in the world, and this point is there¬ 
fore called the cold pole of the earth. 

Plants and Animals. — The 

cold northern part of Siberia, 
like northern Europe and Amer¬ 
ica, is a vast expanse of frozen 
ground, called tundra. Toward 
the south the tundra grades into 
the forest, low, stunted trees 
being followed by true forests of 
evergreens, birches, poplars, etc. 

Farther south, where the rainfall is light and the evaporation rapid 
because of the higher temperature, the soil is so dry in summer that 
the forests disappear. These steppes are covered with luxuriant 
grass in the north, but farther south they grade into the desert. Since 
northern Asia is really a continuation of Europe, the wild plants and 
animals, as well as the farm products, resemble those of Europe. 

In southern Asia, on the other hand, from Arabia to China, the 



Fig. 410. 


The banyan, or Indian fig tree, from whose 
lower branches shoots descend and take 
root — common in Ceylon and other parts 
of southern Asia. 








442 


ASIA 


plants and animals resemble those of Africa rather than those of 
Europe and northern Asia. One reason for this is that southern 
Asia has a tropical climate like Africa ; another is that a mountain 
and desert barrier separates northern from southern Asia. Trace this 
barrier on Figure 402. As in Africa, the arid portion, including 
Aiabia, Persia, and central Asia, is the home of the camel (Fig. 
404) and ostrich (fig. 442), while the elephant and rhinoceros 
(Fig. 404) live on the savannas and in the tropical jungles. South¬ 
ern Asia is also the home of the fierce tiger and numerous species 
of monkeys and apes (Fig. 404). 


The extent to which the Asiatic people have employed animals in their 
service is indicated by the following facts. On the frozen tundras, where 
none of the other large domesticated animals thrive, the reindeer not only 
supplies milk, meat, and hides, but is also used as a work animal. The 
camel, whose original home seems to have been Asia, makes human habi¬ 
tation possible m the desert (Figs. 404 and 419). Elephants are domesti¬ 
cates. and made to work in the dense tropical forest (Figs. 411 and 427)- 
and the buffalo is used as a work animal in hot, damp lands where horses 
find the climate trying (Fig. 441). Among the lofty plateaus and moun¬ 
tains, where the air is so rarefied and the slopes so steep that other work 
animals cannot be used, the yak is domesticated. Upon the steppes, where 
herds of cattle, sheep, and goats are kept, the horse is so necessary to the 
herder that the men almost live in the paddle. Indeed, the word Cossack 
applied to Russians who dwell on the steppes, means horseman. 



Fig. 411. 


An elephant in Ceylon drawing a cart loaded with cocoanuts. 

















PEOPLE 


443 


People. — Early progress toward civilization was made possible in 
Asia laigel) because certain portions were so favorably situated. 
1 be flood plains of the Euphrates and of the Indian and Chinese 
liveis had a fertile soil and an abundance of water for irrigation. 
They were, moreover, protected from invasion by ocean, desert, and 
mountain bairiers, and the inhabitants could therefore cultivate the 
arts of peace. Among the shut-in valleys of the lofty mountains, 
also, were centers where de¬ 


velopment was possible 
because so protected from 
wandering hordes. 

Asiatic peoples, moving 
into Europe, carried the 
civilization of their old home 
with them, and in time ad¬ 
vanced much beyond those 
whom thev left behind. In 

t/ 

fact, while Europeans have 
been progressing, tlie Asiat¬ 
ics have been standing still, 
or even falling back. 

One reason for this last 
fact is the very isolation which 
made the first development 
possible; for the people were 
so cut off and separated geo¬ 
graphically that they failed to learn from others, as those Europeans 
who dwelt along the Mediterranean were able to do. A second reason 
is that many Asiatics, like, for example, the Chinese, have felt that 
their civilization was the best, and have therefore refused to learn. 
A third reason is found in the wonderful development of navigation by 
Europeans. 



Fig. 412. 

Japanese rain coats. 


More than half of the human race live in Asia, two thirds 
of them belonging to the yellow division (p. 277), while the re¬ 
mainder are mainly whites. But although there are more than 
eight hundred million human beings there, most of the continent 
is sparsely settled. The mountain slopes, the cold plateaus, the 
steppes, deserts, forests, and tundras support but few inhabit¬ 
ants. Nearly seven eighths of the people dwell near the coast, 
especially on the river flood plains and deltas of the south and east. 










444 


ASIA 


There almost every foot of available land is cultivated, and soil is 
even transferred to boats on the rivers. 

Turkish or Ottoman Empire. — While Constantinople, the capital 
of the Turkish Empire, is in Europe, Turkey has ten times as much 
land in Asia as in Europe. 

Conditions in the Empire. — Turkey in Asia, although of little 
importance among nations at the present time, is of peculiar inter¬ 
est to us because of its historical associations. It is within its 
territory that many of the places mentioned in the Bible are located 
(Fig. 416) ; here also Christ was born, as well as the prophet Moham¬ 
med ; and it was from this center that much of the ancient civiliza¬ 
tion spread along the shores of the Mediterranean. 

Much of Turkey in Asia is table-land, with short mountain ranges 
and extinct volcanoes, of which Mt. Ararat is an example. Except 
along the coast of the Mediterranean and Black seas, where the 
wind blings vapor, there is little rainfall. The streams are usually 
short and shallow, and there are numerous salt lakes. Point out the 
two principal rivers (Fig. 403). 

Some of the mountain slopes are forested, but elsewhere the coun- 
tiy is open, and in places suited to herding and agriculture. In the 
valleys, wheat, grapes, olives, figs, oranges, and cotton are raised, 
usually by the aid of irrigation. Smyrna is the most important 
seaport. Locate it. Find Trebizond. 


% 

The inhabitants, though so near Europe, have not advanced as Euro¬ 
peans have. I he valuable minerals are scarcely worked at all; herding 
and farming are carried on in much the same way as in the time Of Christ"; 
and there is practically no manufacturing except that done by hand (Fig! 
408). Some of this work, however, is very beautiful, as, for example, the 
Turkish rugs already mentioned (p. 431). 

1 he unfortunate history of the region furnishes an explanation of its 
lack of development. Asia Minor, the peninsula between the Mediter¬ 
ranean and black seas, was the pathway for the ancient caravan trade 
between Europe and Asia. While this brought prosperity, it also led to 
many invasions. More than five centuries before Christ the country was 
conquered by the Persians j two centuries later it came under the control 
of the Greeks; and later still it became a part of the Roman Empire. 
After that, with the decline of the Roman Empire, came invasions bv 
wandering Turks, Tartars, and others. It was by this route that the 
i ohammedan lurks gained a foothold in southwestern Europe, and bv 
their occupation devastated the country. Notwithstanding Mohammedan 
persecution, many of the inhabitants still profess the Christian religion, 


% 


r 


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Fig. 413. 

The river Jordan, 



Fig. 414. 

Tiberias on the Sea of Galilee 

































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HOLY LAND 


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Scale of Miles 


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Part of Jordan Valley below 
Sea Level, shown in purple. 


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Sea of ( 
Galilee' 


Nazareth 


^Mt.Tabo 

jf^NLNain 

’lairti o/\!N 4 


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Ctesarea, 


Arbela 


H Scytiropoli 
4Betlr.Sh4a: 


Dion! 


.Enon 


4-44 M£.;Ebu! 

Shechenh .Sy.'b.u^ 


Antipatris 


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Mt.Gilead 


ShilolO#/' 


amoth Gilead' 


Rabb^htNmrtTon 

Mladelphial 


JabnehJ5 
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"jEnimaus 


R aril a' 


MjtsCWJl-T IS 


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Mt. Nebo 


Askalon, 


Bpthleiie th 

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Machaerus 


ebroiT.V'\ 


Beer-sheba 




l.l. P 0 <TES ENGB'G CO., N.Y. 


Longitude 35° East 


30' / Greenwich 


Fig.416 






























































TURKISH EMPIRE 


445 


although at great cost, as is proved by the frequent massacres of the 
Armenians. 

1 here are two parts of Turkey in Asia that merit special men¬ 
tion ; namely, the Holy Land , and the valley of the Euphrates and 
Tigris rivers, or Mesopotamia. 

The Holy Ijand (Fig. 416). —This part of Turkey in Asia pos¬ 
sesses peculiar interest for us. Back of a straight coast, with no good 
harbors, lies a narrow coastal plain, beyond which are two low moun¬ 
tain ranges including between them the remarkable depression in 
which the Dead Sea is situated. While Hebron (Fig. 416) is about 
three thousand feet above sea level, the surface of the Dead Sea, a few 
miles to the east, is almost thirteen hundred feet below sea level, beinor 

o 

the deepest depression on the lands of the world. Although fed by 
the river Jordan (Fig. 413), which flows out of a fresh-water lake, the 
Sea of Galilee (Fig. 414), the water of the Dead Sea is so dense from 
the salt it contains that a person cannot sink in it. The Jordan 
Valley lies no farther south than southern Alabama ; yet since it is so 
low and inclosed, its climate is almost tropical. 

Before the coming of the Jews this region was divided into small 
countries, often under the rule of their more advanced and powerful 
neighbors, the Egyptians. Then the Jews entered this “promised land ” 
and created a king¬ 
dom which attained 
its greatest power 
under Solomon. It 
was here that many 
of the events in 
the Old Testament 
occurred, including 
the advance in re¬ 
ligion from the 
belief in many gods 
to the acceptance of 
one all-powerful 
God. Persians, 

Egyptians, and Ro¬ 
mans later ruled 
over Palestine, and it was during the control of the latter people that Christ 
was born at Bethlehem. What events in the life of Christ can you mention 
that occurred at some of the places marked on the map? (Fig. 416.) 

At the time of the birth of Christ, as we learn from the Bible, the 
region was highly developed. Wheat was raised upon the uplands, and 
olives, tigs, and grapes in the valleys, while herds of sheep roamed over 



Fig. 41"). 

A part of Bethlehem. 









446 


ASIA 


the plateaus and mountains. Palestine lay on the great caravan route 
which, leading from Egypt to the distant East, ran northward as far as 
Damascus (fig. 403) in order to avoid the Syrian desert. Throngs of 
people, therefore, passed this way. Jerusalem (Fig. 417), the capital, 
was a great city, situated upon a lofty elevation that made it an impor¬ 
tant stronghold. 

The city is now visited by many Christians, and also by Mohammedan 
pilgiims who believe that Mohammed ascended to heaven there. Very 
little of importance is to be seen, for much of the country, once u flowing 
with milk and honey,” is in ruins. Even the usual mode of travel is by 



Fig. 417 . 

A view in Jerusalem. 


mule or camel, as m olden times, although a short railway climbs the 
mountains from the seacoast at Joppa to Jerusalem, and another has 
been begun to lowing the old caravan route through Nazareth, past 
the Sea of Galilee, to Damascus. Trace these two lines. Accordin'- to 
the scale (Fig. 416), what is the length of Palestine ? The breadth ? 

Mesopoiamia. This region, including the fertile valleys of the 

lgl ’ 1S aml Eu P hrates rivers > has suffered the same fate as the rest of 
urkey in Asia. Formerly a country of great resources, crossed by 
a network of irrigation canals, “ a garden of the Lord,” it has been 
devastated by the Arabs and Turks until it is now almost a waste. 
Babylon and Nineveh, once the seats of a wonderful civilization are 
now marked only by mounds of ruins. From these ruins records 

are at present being unearthed which promise to throw much light 
upon ancient history. 6 








ARABIA 


447 


Under such condition there can be little commerce, though the 
iigris is navigable with steamboats as far up as Bagdad. This 
city, situated on the caravan route to the east, was of much impor¬ 
tance in ancient times. There is still some trade between Europe 
and India along this route. 

Arabia. — this peninsula is a plateau several thousand feet in 
elevation, with a fringe of mountains (Fig. 418), most prominent 
in the south and west. What waters border Arabia? Since the 
coast line is wonderfully regular, there are few harbors and there- 
foit few coastal cities. Nevertheless, the inclosed seas favored the 
early development of navigation here as in the Mediterranean. 
Therefore in very early times Arabian ships carried on commerce 
with Africa, India, and even with eastern Asia. 

1 he climate is hot,along the coast, but cool on the plateau and 
among the mountains. A great part of the interior is desert, and 
almost everywhere the rainfall is light. Why? (p. 253.) What 
about large rivers ? Coffee is raised in the southwest, near Mocha ; 
the date palm flourishes in many places; and fruits and vegetables 
are produced in many of the valleys. 

In so unfavorable a climate the population is necessarily sparse and 
largely nomadic. Cattle, sheep, goats, horses, donkeys, and drome¬ 
daries are raised in large numbers. 



Fig. 418. 

A view among the Arabian mountains. 















448 


ASIA 


Mecca, a Turkish city about fifty miles from the sea, is sacred to all 
Mohammedans. It was here that Mohammed was born, and every Moham¬ 
medan is supposed to make a pilgrimage to it at least once during his life¬ 
time. Most of these pilgrims come by sea, and every year the city, as 
well as the roads leading to it, are crowded with them. 


Persia. Like Arabia, Persia is an elevated tableland with large 
tracts of desert and salt steppes of little or no use to man. The 
arid climate prevents the formation of large rivers ; but the rains 



Fig. 419. 


A drove of camels in Persia. 


and snows of the parallel mountain ranges permit some irrigation in 
the broad valleys. There is so little rainfall, however, and evapora¬ 
tion is so rapid during the hot, dry summer, that water for irrigation 

is often led from the mountains in underground tunnels. Why are 
tunnels preferable to ditches ? 

. The main farm Products are tobacco, wheat, barley, cotton, and 
opium. Much silk is also produced, and roses are cultivated for 
the manufacture of attar of roses. The principal agricultural 
portion is near the Caspian Sea, where there is sufficient rainfall 
or crops and also for extensive forests on the mountain slopes 
Among the mineral deposits is the precious stone turquoise; but 
although there are doubtless other valuable minerals, there is little 

mining. Along the coast of both Arabia and Persia precious pearls 
and pearl shells are found. 


tW ° mi ? li0n f ersians beIon S to nomadic tribes (Figs. 419 and 
420) which roam about the desert, dwelling in tents, and herding goats 

sheep, and other animals. There is no extensive manufacturing, but the 







AFGHANISTAN 


440 


1 eisians, like the lurks, do some very beautiful hand weaving, as, for 
example, shawls and rugs. Their carving and inlaid metal and wood 
work are also wonderfully artistic. 



The government of Persia resembles that of Turkey, and is 
therefore very bad. The ruler, or Shah, an absolute monarch, controls 
the lives and property 
of his subjects, who 
are mostly Moham¬ 
medans. Teheran, 
the capital, has some 
beautiful mosques, 
though the dwelling- 
houses are made of 
sun-dried bricks and 
face narrow, filthy 
streets. 


Afghanistan.—This 
country, “ one of the 
waste places of the 
world,” is a region of 
sand, bare rocks, and 
snow-capped moun¬ 
tains. Only in the val¬ 
leys is the soil made to 
yield a harvest; and 
even there the cold, 
blustering winters and 
the dry, scorching sum¬ 
mers make one of the worst of climates. Life under such unfavorable 
conditions has developed a people noted for hardiness, stubbornness, 
bravery, and cruelty. 

As in other Asiatic countries so far studied, the government is very 
bad. The ruler, the merciless Amir, holds his authority by means of the 
terror which he inspires. His seat of government is at Kabul, nestled 
among lofty mountains. Since Great Britain has pushed her Indian 
frontier northward, while Russia has encroached on the opposite side 
of Afghanistan, this country is often called the “buffer state” between 
these two rival powers. 


Fig. 420. 

A Persian nomad girl. 


Russia in Asia.—This vast section of the Russian Empire in¬ 
cludes about one eighth of the land surface of the globe. There are 
several divisions, such as Turkestan and the dependencies of Bok¬ 
hara and Khiva ; but by far the largest is Siberia, which is a million 














450 


ASIA 


square miles larger than Europe, and even larger than the United 
States, Mexico, and Central America combined. Yet it has less than 
one twelfth as many inhabitants as the United States alone. It is 
cold, bleak tundra in the north, and arid steppe in the south, while in 
the east are lofty plateaus and mountains. But in the central part is 
a broad belt of agricultural country, and much forest-covered land. 

In the past Siberia has attained a reputation mainly as a source 
of minerals, and as a place of exile for Russians whom the govern¬ 
ment wishes to dispose of for political or other reasons. Gold has 


Fig. 421. 



a village in Siberia. 

been found in a number of places, as in the Urals, and near Lake 
Baikal, the largest fresh-water lake on the continent. But while 
there is much mineral wealth in Siberia, there has been little mining 
except in the western part near Russia. 

I he defeat of Russia in the great war with Japan (1904-05), bv 
turning the minds of the Russians from schemes of conquest to the 

promotion of the arts of peace, may prove of the greatest advantage 
to her great Eastern Empire. 

A new era seems about to open for this vast empire, for the Russian 
government is now constructing extensive railways which will open up 
le country for development. One system extends eastward from the 
Caspian Sea to Turkestan (Fig. 403), while another and longer one 
reaches from Russm m Europe to the Pacific Ocean. Trace it 'on Fig- 

T • ! ilthert0 transportation across the vast plans, arid steppes, and 
lugged eastern mountains has been difficult in the extreme. 

Of by th f buildin§ of raiIwa y s we may expect a rapid development 
of Siberia, whose resources are far greater than the sparseness of the 
population would indicate. 






INDIA 


451 


There are some important cities in Russia in Asia. The largest 
in the southwest is Tashkbnd, which is about the size of Toledo, 
< >hio. Tutus, between the Black and Caspian seas, is really in Asia, 
though the Russian government classes this region with its European 
provinces. It is about the size of Tashkend. There is a number 
of other cities with a population of fifty to a hundred thousand. 
In Siberia there are no large cities, though several along the railway 
including Irkutsk and Vladivostok, are now growing rapidly. 

India. ibis densely populated peninsula, with its warm cli¬ 
mate, offers a striking contrast to cold, sparsely populated, and 
slightly developed Siberia. 

Physiography and Climate. — Lying largely in the torrid zone, the 
Indian peninsula has a hot climate. Its position in the trade-wind 
belt might lead us to expect much desert, especially on the lee or 
western side. But this coast really has a heavy rainfall because it is 
reached by the summer monsoons (Fig. 202). In the winter, how- 
ever, when the winds blow 
from the land, the climate 
is so dry that plants wither ; 
and in Baluchistan, which 
is not affected by the sum¬ 
mer monsoons, there is true 
desert. Southern India and 
Ceylon, on the other hand, 
have a heavy rainfall at all 
seasons. Why? 

India, which is in the 
form of a triangle, has a re¬ 
markably regular coast and 

therefore few good harbors. Most of the peninsula is a plateau, rarely 
more than two thousand feet high, and largely covered with lava flows 
like those of the Columbia River valley of western United States. 

North of the plateau is a broad lowland occupied by the Brahma¬ 
putra, Ganges, and Indus rivers, which, like the Po of Italy, have 
built the plains out of sediment brought from the mountains. 
Among the lofty mountains which lie to the north of the river 
plains, the highest are the Himalayas, in which there are scores 
of peaks that reach an altitude of over four miles. Even the moun¬ 
tain passes are from seventeen to nineteen thousand feet above sea 
level, or much higher than Mt. Blanc in the Alps. 

31—A O 




7 



Fig. 422. 

Natives of the Cashmere valley. 




452 


ASIA 


Farming. ihis mountain system has formed a northward bar¬ 
rier to British conquest, as in former days it served as a barrier to 
invasion from nomadic hordes which overran Asia Minor. With 
such protection the fertile plains and deltas of the three great rivers 
became the seat of early civilization. From the very earliest times 
the people have been engaged in farming, and at present fully three 
fifths of the population follow that occupation. 

As there are 287,000,000 inhabitants in an area of about 1,559,000 
square miles, it will be seen that there is an average of 184 persons’for 
eveiy square mile; and in parts of the country there are 500 per square 
mile. The density of population may be better understood by remember¬ 
ing that there are only twenty persons per square mile in the United States, 
o'here are, in fact, almost as many people in India as in North America, 
South America, and Africa together. 

Millet, which grows on the drier lands, and rice, which is raised 
on the river lowlands where the land can be flooded, are the staple 
foods of the natives. After the dense population is fed, however, 
little is left for export. Wheat, on the other hand, is raised for ex¬ 
port, and India is a vast granary for Great Britain. Much cotton is 
also produced. Some of this is manufactured into coarse fabrics 
for use at home and for export to China and Africa; but much is 

exported as raw cotton for 
use in the cotton mills of 
Great Britain. Other agri¬ 
cultural products are tea, 
sugar cane, tobacco, opium 
obtained from a species of 
poppy, indigo of value as a 
dye, and jute grown upon the 
sandy river bars for the sake 
of its coarse, strong fiber. 

For the production of rice, 
and for other crops as well, 
irrigation is necessary in 
many places. Therefore 
this country, favored with 
large rivers fed by the rains, 
snows, and melting glaciers of 
the mountains, has some of the 
most extensive irrigation works 
in the world. 










INDIA 


453 


Forests and Wild Animals. — There are valuable forests on the moun¬ 
tain slopes, where the trees, including pines, firs, and junipers, resemble 
those of Europe; and there are also magnolias and the beautiful deodar, a 
species of cedar. In the hotter portions are valuable medicinal plants and 
spices, such as pepper and cinnamon. The teak, with strong, durable 
wood, of gieat value in building, and the mango, the fruit of which is 
important as a food between harvests, are both common. Besides these. 



Fig. 424. 


A native village near Calcutta. Notice the bamboo on the right. 

the bamboo and various palms are of great value. The bamboo is employed 
in hundreds of ways in making implements and building houses (Fig. 
424); and the palms supply juices for drink, fiber for ropes and mats, and 
cocoanuts (Fig. 411) for food and oil. 

In parts of the Ganges valley and elsewhere there are jungles , or tracts 
of waste land densely covered with bamboos, canes, etc., and very difficult 
to penetrate. From these wastes the lion has almost disappeared; but 
the elephant is still found, and there are various species of the monkey; 
also the rhinoceros, buffalo, leopard, wild boar, wolf, and Bengal tiger (Fig. 
404). The tiger is much dreaded, for it not only preys upon cattle, but 
even attacks men. Among the Himalayas, goats, sheep, and dogs still 
exist in a wild state. Crocodiles live in the rivers; and venomous ser¬ 
pents are said to kill as many as twenty thousand persons each year. 

Mining and Manufacturing. — In addition to the raw products of 
farms and forests there are valuable minerals, including salt, petro- 






454 


1 SI A 


leum, coal, and iron. India has long been noted for hand-made 
goods of great beauty ; but with the exception of these there is 

little manufacturing. Of 
late, however, there has been 
a marked development of 
cotton manufacturing by 
machinery. 

Famines and Plagues. — 
Although these people are so 
extensively engaged in agricul¬ 
ture, there are times when they 
do not raise enough food for 
A tomb and mosque in India. their own use, and then terrible 



Fig. 425. 



. . -Laimuca iGbUib. JLnese OCCU1 

when ram fails; and it may be that one section suffers while another has 
an abundance. With the building of railways the danger of famine^ 
decreases, for then different 
sections are brought more 
closely together. The first 
railway was begun in 1854, and 
there is now a network across 
the peninsula (Fig. 403). 

But even the railways do 
not entirely remove the 
danger; and probably famines 
will not cease so long as such 
vast numbers depend entirely 
upon the products of the soil. 

India has also been visited 
by plagues which have 
destroyed tens of thousands 
of lives. With a population 
so dense, in a climate so hot, 
disease spreads with rapidity 
and with terrible effect, par¬ 
ticularly among people who 
are not properly nourished. 

Ihe people have many 
religious superstitions. For 
exam pie, the Ganges, doubtless 
because of its great value for 
irrigating and fertilizing the 
soil, is considered a sacred 
river (Fig. 429) ; and bathing 
in its waters is supposed to 


Fig. 420. 


Ihe Great Tagoda in India—a sacred temple. 
























IM)IA 


455 


wash away disease, though, since the waters are also used for drinking, 
this custom is no doubt responsible for the spread of much disease. The 
conscientious Hindu makes at least one pilgrimage to the holy river as a 
means of gaining divine favor and forgiveness. 


Government. — Over three hundred years ago a company of Lon¬ 
don merchants obtained a foothold in India for trading purposes. 
The peninsula was then divided among many native rulers, and at 



Elephants at work in a lumber yard in Burma. 


various times the British government was called upon to settle dis¬ 
putes between them. Partly in this way, and partly through the 
occasion of intervening for the protection of British subjects engaged 
in the Indian trade, Great Britain gradually gained control of the pen¬ 
insula. India was formally transferred to Great Britain in 1858, and 
in 1877 the Indian Empire was established as a part of the British Em¬ 
pire. The king of the British Isles is also styled Emperor of India. 


By their protection and direction, the British are able to maintain 
their hold upon this vast country, the population of which is more than 
seven times that of the British Isles. Throughout India there is an 
average of but one British resident to every three thousand natives, and 
by far the greater number of government officers are Hindus. One of the 






456 


ASIA 


members of the British ministry is Secretary of State for India; and, as 
in case of Canada, a governor-general, called the Viceroy , is sent from 
Great Britain as chief executive officer. The British have not attempted 
to overturn the numerous native states; nor have they interfered seriously 
with the firmly established customs of the people. 

Baluchistan and Burma. — The Indian Empire is not confined to the 
Indian peninsula. It includes also the desert country of Baluchistan to 
the west, and fertile Burma to the east. In the latter country there are 
great numbers of Mongolians. Vast quantities of rice are raised, and there 
are other valuable products, as rubies, sapphires, and tropical woods. In 
Burma the elejffiant is used for moving logs (Fig. 427), drawing plows, 
and carrying passengers. Rangoon, the seaport, is noted for its export 

of rice; but Mandalay, farther up the Irawadi River, is the largest city 
in Burma. 

Base of Himalayas. — Between Burma and the peninsula of India, at 
the base of the Himalaya Mountains, is the region which has the heaviest 
rainfall in the world (p. 260). Much tea is raised on the hills of that sec¬ 
tion (Figs. 423 and 428); for tea requires a hot climate, an abundance of 



Fig. 428. 

Picking tea in India. 



INDIA 


457 


rain, and sufficient slope to prevent the water from standing about the 
roots of the plant. 

Ihe tea plant, which is three or four feet high, has bright green leaves 
resembling those of a rose bush. The leaves are picked several times a 
year, often by boys and girls. After they are picked they are dried in* the 
sun and later in buildings, in order to remove all moisture before packing. 

Just north of this tea district, among the Himalayas, are Nepal and 
Bhutan, which, though small, retain their independence because they are 
so protected by the mountains. 

Principal Cities. —So many Hindus are engaged in farming that 
only about five per cent of them dwell in large towns. Nevertheless, 



Fig. 429. 

Temples along the Ganges at Benares. 


there are seventy-five cities with a population of over fifty thou¬ 
sand; the two largest are Calcutta, with a population of one million, 
and Bombay, with a population of three quarters of a million. 

Calcutta, the largest city, is a seaport on the Ganges delta and 
the natural outlet of the fertile Ganges valley; but it lias a poor 
harbor on a river that varies in volume. It has some manufactur¬ 
ing,— being near coal lields, — but it is chiefly important as a 
commercial center and as the residence of the Viceroy. 
















458 


ASIA 


Farther up the Ganges are the smaller cities, Lucknow and Benares. 
The latter, the “ holy city of the Hindus,” is on that part of the Ganges 
which is deemed most holy. At this point temples (Fig. 429) line the 
banks of the river for miles, and a steady stream of pilgrims pours in and 
out?-of the city. 

While there are several cities on the Ganges, there are none on the 
Indus huge enough to find a place on our map. This is not because the 
Indus is useless for irrigation, but because of shallow waters and sand 
bais which interfere with navigation. These are due to the fact that the 
river, though well supplied with water from the mountains, loses much of 
it by evaporation in crossing the arid plains. Thus it is obliged to deposit 
some of its sediment as sand bars in its channel. 

Bombay, next in size to Calcutta and the nearest port to Eng¬ 
land, is a great business center. It is, moreover, the only Indian 
city with a really good harbor. Madras, the third largest city, is 

situated at a point where there is only an open roadstead protected 
by a breakwater. 

Ceylon. — With a fertile soil, abundant rainfall, and high though 
equabie temperature, Ceylon is a beautiful tropical garden, and was 
consideied by the Arabs to be the Garden of Eden. Among the prod¬ 
ucts of Ceylon are cocoanuts, rice, fruit, coffee, and tea. The island is 
the third most important tea-producing section in the world. Other 
products are sapphires and rubies from the stream gravels, and beauti¬ 
ful pearls and mother of pearl obtained from shellfish which live amoim 
the coral reefs. & 


Indo-China and the Malay Peninsula. — This peninsula consists 
of a senes of mountain chains, spreading fan-shaped southward, with 
numerous long, narrow valleys between, which broaden toward the 
south and terminate in fertile, populous delta plains at the river 
mouths. In addition to Burma, a part of the Indian Empire, there 
are three divisions of this peninsula: (1) Siam, (2) French Indo- 
China, and (3) the British Straits Settlements. 

Siam.-' In this tropical country most of the inhabitants, who are 
either Chinese or Malays, live along the rivers and irrigation canals, 
where they are largely engaged in the production of rice. Millet’ 
which is raised m the drier places, competes with rice in importance 
as a food. ^ Among the mineral products are rubies, sapphires, gold, 

and tin. The forests yield tropical woods, especially teak wood, for 
use at home and for export. 

Siam is a monarchy, the king being assisted by a council of ministers 
and a legislative body of noblemen. The poorer classes are still kept in a 


IN DO-CHIN A 


459 

kind of serfdom by the local governors; that is, they may be compelled to 
labor for the governors for two or three months each year. 

Bangkok, the capital and largest city, is situated on the banks of 
a muddy river, up which vessels of small draught are able to pass to 
the city. Most of the inhabitants live either in poor houses on narrow 
ill-kept streets, or else in boats and floating houses on the river; but the 
king has magnificent palaces decorated with carved marble and frescoed 
with gold. Buddhism is the religion of the country; and in Bangkok 



Fig. 4o0. 

A Buddhist temple at Bangkok. 


alone there are said to be ten thousand Buddhist priests whose temples 
(Fig. 430), decorated with gold, silver, and jewels, are wonderfully 
gorgeous. Next to the king the white elephant is held in highest rev¬ 
erence, and Siam is often called “the Land of the White Elephant. 

French Indo-China. — This dependency of France resembles Siam in 
climate, people, and productions. Silk, cotton, tea, and spices are other 
products, and there are also extensive coal beds. Some coal is exported. 

Straits Settlements. —This is the name given to the British possessions 
on the southern end of the Malay peninsula. In that hot, damp country, 
so near the equator, such tropical products as rice, cocoanuts, gutta-percha, 
and spices are obtained. Extensive deposits of tin are found in this region, 
which supplies about half the tin used in the world. The mining is done 








460 


ASIA 


crudely by Chinese, while the native Malays are mainly engaged in farming 
and fishing. The only city of importance is Singapore. 

Chinese Empire. —Area and Population.— This empire, which is 
nearly as large as Siberia, has more inhabitants than any other nation 
in the world. It includes nearly half the population of Asia; that is, 
about the same number as are found in North America, South America, 
Afiica, Australia, the British Isles, and Germany together. Or, 
otherwise expressed, it has fully twenty-five million more people than 
live in all of Europe. The hordes of Chinese who live on the river 
flood plains and deltas of the south and east make this the most 
densely settled large area on the globe. 

Nevertheless, there are outlying provinces of great extent, such as 
i ongolia, Turkestan, and Tibet, where the population is very sparse. 

ns is because of the rugged mountains and the vast desert plateaus 
where the dryness is unfavorable to all industries save herding. 

Climate.— Most of the densely settled part of China has a tem¬ 
perate climate with an abundance of rain during the summer mon¬ 
soon. In the north, for example near Peking, which is in about the 



A scene in the arid mountainous part of China, where camels are used. 












CHINA 


461 


same latitude as Philadelphia, the summers are warm and the win¬ 
ters cold; but farther south, as at Canton, just south of the Tropic 
of Cancer, the climate is tropical, and there is rain throughout the 
year. Toward the interior the climate grows steadily drier, and, 
with increasing elevation, colder also. 

The rains and snows of the Chinese mountains supply water for a 
number of large rivers. The two most important are the Hoang-ho 



Fig. 432. 

A part of the Great Wall of China. 

and the Yangtse-kiang (Fig. 406), whose floods spread out over 
the broad deltas and flood plains, thus depositing sediment and 
adding fertility to the soil. The greatest rise, which in the Yang¬ 
tse-kiang reaches a height of fully forty feet, occurs during the 
summer rains. 

It is with great difficulty that the Hoang-ho is controlled, and in the 
last twenty-five hundred years its lower course has changed eleven dif¬ 
ferent times. In some cases this has caused a change of three hundred 







462 


ASIA 


miles m the position of the river mouth. A single flood destroyed a 
mi lion people. Because of the repeated destruction of life and property 
the Hoang-ho has been called “ China's Sorrow.” 


I eople and Civilization. — The Chinese Empire is inhabited by 
people of varied origin, with different customs, religions, and lan¬ 
guages. 4he Mongolians, who form the basis of the population, 
apparently came from western Asia, bringing with them the knowl¬ 
edge of ii ligation. Although China is partially protected on the 



Fig. 433. 

A scene in a public court of Shanghai. 


west by mountain ranges and desert, the constant danger of invasion 

WanTpS r ly r 212 B - C -’ t0 the Constl ' ucti on Of the Great 

* - • 11-} along the northern frontier. 


This wall, twelve hundred miles long in a straight line, and fifteen 
umhed miles with all of its windings, passes up and down hill (Fm 43‘>x 
and even over a mountain peak. It is twenty five feet wide and thirty 

hGher 8 This ^ Cf IT " 063 apart are str011 § watch-towers rising still 
° h * 11S w° nd yful Structure, which required armies of men to build 
was so well made that it is still perfect in many places. ’ 













CHINA 


463 


Long before Europeans had emerged from the state of barbarism, the 
Chinese had developed a remarkable civilization. The art of printing, 
the manufacture of gunpowder, the production of silk and silk goods, the 
baking of porcelain or china ware, and other important arts were known 
to them long before Europeans learned them. 

Lut in spite of their early start, the Chinese have been outstripped by 
Europeans (p. 443). Their peculiar customs in part account for then- 
failure to advance farther. -I hey are followers of Confucius, and his 
doctrine is everywhere taught. 

One of their doctrines is ancestor worship, which leads them to regard 
new customs as bad. This tends to check development, and is one of the 
reasons why they object to adopting European and American civilization. 
The strength of their ancestor worship is indicated by the fact that dis¬ 
obedience to parents is regarded in China as one of the worst of sins, for 
which children may be whipped to death. Py law the punishment for 
striking a parent is death. 

The conservatism of the Chinese is shown by their objection to the 
introduction of labor-saving machinery, and it is also shown by their 
methods of transportation. Much of the traffic is carried on by means of 
canals (Fig. 434), of which the largest is the Grand Canal (Fig. 403), built 
more than twelve hundred 
years ago. 

Many Chinese educated 
in the LTiited States and 
Europe are the leaders of a 
“ Reform Party ” which, to¬ 
gether with the educational 
influence of the Christian 
missionaries, who have 
worked midst great priva¬ 
tions and danger for years 
among the- Chinese, have 
been the means of awaken¬ 
ing China to a realization 
of her natural resources 
and possibilities. 

This means the opening 
of her ports to the commerce of the world, the introduction of modern 
educational methods and text-books into her schools, modern machinery 
and appliances for manufacturing and transportation, and the adoption of 
modern dress and customs. 

This great awakening promises to place China eventually among the 
modern, progressive nations of the world. 



Fig. 434. 

A typical Chinese village and canal. 


National Resources. — Though many Chinese are engaged in fish¬ 
ing, both in the rivers and the ocean, they are in the main an agri- 








464 


ASIA 


ciiltuial people. Their farming methods are very crude ; yet they 
are so careful and industrious, and labor is of so little value, that 
they till every bit of land possible. For example, water for irriga¬ 
tion, instead of being distributed only over moderate slopes, as in 
the United States, is often taken to the very tops of hills. It is 
first raised from the river by means of wheels, turned either by men 
or by buffaloes, and then pumped upward from one terrace to the 
next until the whole hillside has been watered. 

One of the principal foods of the Chinese is rice; but their 
main exports are tea and silk. Tea is raised on the damp 
hill slopes of the south, where the conditions resemble those in 
India (p. 456). . Fully forty thousand men and women are employed 
in carrying tea into Fuchau alone. They receive but ten cents a 
day for their labor. In the warm south, great quantities of silk 
are obtained, as in France, from the cocoon of the silkworm cater- 
pilku. Some of the caterpillars feed on forest leaves, others are 
carefully fed on the mulberry leaf. 



Asm other countries of southern Asia, the bamboo is one of the mos 
valuable products. The seeds are ground up for food, and in sprino- tin 
tender roots and stalks are eaten. The roofs and walls of houses, as well as 
nearly all articles of furniture, are made of bamboo wood. It is, more 
over, woven into mats, baskets, and hats, while paper is made from ih 

pulp. There is almost no other kinc 
of manufacturing, nor is there mucl 
development of the wonderful min¬ 
eral resources. It is said that China 
contains the largest coal fields in the 
world, in which both bituminous and 
anthracite coal occur; and there are 
also deposits of gold, silver, lead, and 
iron ore. 


Fig. 435. 

A Chinese pagoda or temple. 


Government .—The Chinese 
government is peculiar. The 
Emperor, who has a right to nom¬ 
inate his own successor, is known 
as the “Son of Heaven.” He has 
under him a Viceroy for each 
province, who must collect 
money for the imperial govern¬ 
ment, but is partly independent 
of the Emperor. The present Em- 





CHINA 


465 


peror is not a Chinaman, but belongs to the Manchu division of 
the yellow race, which invaded and conquered China in 1644. It 
was then that the Manchu custom of wearing a long queue, or 
“pigtail,” was introduced into China. 

Principal Cities. — There are many cities in China, all densely 
crowded. The poorer classes live huddled together, while the 
wealthier classes and officials dwell in comfort and luxury. The 
largest city is Canton, which has about nine hundred thousand 



Fig. 43<). 

The harbor of Hongkong. 

inhabitants. It is situated on a densely populated delta and is a 
port of outlet for productive southern China, being especially noted 
for its silk. It is said that three hundred thousand people, or one 
third of the inhabitants, live in boats moored in the river. 

Hongkong (Fig. 436), an island which commands the approach 
to Canton, belongs to the British. To Hongkong many of the 
products of China are sent for export to Europe and America. It 
is therefore a very busy place. Hankau and Wuchang, on oppo¬ 
site sides of the Yangtse-kiang River, are important river ports for 
tea. As- in the case of most Chinese cities, the number of inhabit¬ 
ants is uncertain, but Hankau is now supposed to have a popula¬ 
tion of about five hundred and thirty thousand. 

The treaty port 1 of Shanghai is another large city; but Tien¬ 
tsin, the port nearest Peking, and the northern terminus of the 

1 Foreigners are not allowed to trade in all Chinese cities, and those ports where 
this privilege is allowed by treaty are called “Treaty Ports.” 







466 


ASIA 


Grand Canal, is larger, with a population of three quarters of a 
million. It was from this point that the allied forces started, in 
1900, to relieve the foreigners who were besieged in Peking by the 

Peking, the capital of China, is situated on a broad, sandy plain. 
It has been the capital of a kingdom for three thousand years and of 
the Chinese Empire for over eight centuries. This city, like others 
m China, is surrounded by a high wall, with gates that “are closed at 
mght, as of old m Europe. It is a rectangular city, with one portion 
reserved for the gardens and palaces of the imperial government. 

ns part is known as the “ Forbidden City,” because the Chinese 
government refused to permit foreigners to enter it. 

. , ^ 0r , ea ; ~J h ' S “ ountainous P enin sula has a temperate climate and is 
adapted to the production of such crops as grains in the north, and rice 
tobacco and cotton in the south. In many respects the inhabitants 

freed bv t m Tt “ fa °‘’. Kol ' ea was a dependency of China until 
■d by the war between China and Japan in 1894. While there are 

great natural resources, including both coal and iron, there was little 

leal development, and the opening of the country to foreign influence 

as very slow until the close of the war between Russia 8 and Japan 

iutelage of j^an ^ «* I"*- »nder "he 

Japan. — This island empire extends from Formosa, captured 
f om the Chinese m 1894, to the Kurile Islands far to the north. It 
also includes the southern half of the island of Sagl,alien ceded by 
Russ,a to Japan at the close of the great war of 1904-05. The locn- 

Britisb T 1 l8land ^'with reference to the mainland reminds us of the 
British Isles; and, in fact, Japan’s isolation from other countries 
as secured to her the same freedom from invasion as has long 
proved of such advantage to the British. ^ 

Physiography and Climate. - Notwithstanding the great length 

than that of California. So much of this is mountainous that not 
more than one sixth of the surface can be cultivated, and many of 

the absence* of"^ ^ rUgg6d SU1 ' faCe and 
(Kg- «5), „d. since .h, 

there are many earthquakes. These are so frequent fnd violent 
that in building houses the people must allow for their force 

Mpon, the main island of Japan, has a warm, temperate' climate 


JAPAN 


467 


aiul an abundance of rain. Other islands near by have a similar 
climate, but Formosa is partly within the tropics. Estimate its dis- 
tance from Manila. 

I ntlei these conditions, in several respects so unfavorable, a 
dense population has developed, equal to more than half the number 
in the United States. Jn many ways the Japanese are the most 
advanced people in Asia. 

People and Government. —In early times Japan was invaded by 
Mongolians from the mainland, who expelled the original inhab¬ 
itants to the more barren northern islands. From these Mongo¬ 
lians are descended 
the present Japanese 
(see Figs. 274 and 
412), a people noted 
for their smallness of 
stature and their 
wonderful artistic in¬ 
stinct. 

Centuries before 
the time of Christ 
they had developed a 
civilization resembling 

O 

that of their kinsmen, 
the Chinese. Their 
fine taste led to the 
manufacture of many 
beautiful articles of 
silk, metal, glass, and 
wood. Like the Chinese, they for a long time did not care for 
modern civilization, and closed their ports to the outside world. 
In 1853, however, United States warship's under Commodore Perry 
entered Yokohama and induced the Japanese to open their ports to 
our commerce. After this important step the country, in 1808, was 
freely opened to the world. 

One great drawback to the advance of Japan was the nature of 
the government, which resembled that of Europe in the Middle 
Ages. While the Mikado was nominally emperor, the real power 
was in the hands of noblemen who, by the feudal system, had large 
numbers of peasants, not only to work for them, but to fight when 
necessary. After the country was opened to foreigners the power 

32—A G 



Fig. 437. 

A Japanese peasant family traveling. 



468 


ASIA 


of the noblemen was lessened, and the Mikado became the real 
emperor. At present he is aided by two legislative bodies, one 
consisting mainly of noblemen, the other elected by qualified voters. 



Fig. 438. 

A Japanese traveling chair. 


1 here is also a Cabinet ap¬ 
pointed by the Mikado, as 
the cabinet of the United 
States is appointed by the 
President. 

Recent Advance. — Since 
these changes the Japanese 
have become noted for their 
willingness to learn the 
lessons of Western civiliza¬ 
tion, and their progress has 
been truly marvelous. New 
schools have been started, 
and education has been 
made compulsory. Ameri¬ 
cans and Europeans have 


... , T been induced to go to Japan 

to teach, and Japanese students have been sent to Europe and America to 

s udy m the universities and to learn what they could of Western eivili- 



A temple in Japan. 





































































JAPAN 


469 


zation. Thus, in a generation the Japanese have added to their own 
knowledge that of Europe and America; and they have learned their 
lessons so well that, with their patience, skill, and intelligence, they alone 
of all the nations in Asia have taken rank with the great nations of 
the world. 

Over seven hundred newspapers and periodicals are now published in 
♦Japan. AVhile in 18 /2 there was only one short railway from Yokohama 
to Tokio, a distance of eighteen miles, there are now more than three 
thousand miles of railway in the empire. There are many large manufac¬ 
tories of various kinds; and, as in the British Isles, cotton and other 
raw products are imported for manufacture. There is a curious mixture 
of modern and ancient customs here (see Figs. 437-440). 


Other impor¬ 
tant cities, having 
a population of 
several hundred 
thousand, are Osa- 
k a , noted for its 
cotton manufac- 


Fiu. 440. 


Jinrikislms, 


or “man-power carriages.” 



Resources. — Among the mountains there are valuable deposits 
of gold, silver, copper, iron, and coal; and these are now well devel¬ 
oped. The mountain sides are covered with forests of great value, 
including giant cedars, camphor laurels, and lacquer trees; and 
wherever the soil is favorable there is agriculture. Among the soil 
products are wheat, sugar cane, and rice, the latter being an impor¬ 
tant article of food. As in China, both tea and silk are produced, 
and these form two of the main articles of export. Much of our tea 
comes from Japan. Besides these industries, fully two and a half 
millions of people are engaged in fishing. 

Principal Cities. —Tokio, a city larger than Philadelphia, is the 
capital of Japan. Besides being the home of the Mikado, and there¬ 
fore having many government buildings, it has numerous manu¬ 
factories. Yokohama, at the entrance to Tokio Bay, was a mere 
fishing village when visited by Perry; but since the harbor of Tokio 
is unsuited for 
the large modern 
ships, Yokohama 
hasgrown rapidly 
and now has the 
largest foreign 
trade in Japan. 












470 


ASIA 


tu ring; Kioto, the former capital, and the center of the tea district; and 
JN agoya, a center for porcelain manufacturing, for which Japan has Ion 
been noted. All these are connected by railway lines, which have been 
great aid m the development of their industries. State how. 



Fig. 441. 


Asiatic buffalo, used as a work animal in southern and western Asia, 

northeastern Africa. 


eastern Europe, and 


reference to V t?,e3, NS ^ <1™ “T* ° f Asia > als0 with 

reterenc e to the zones and other continents/ (2) Tell about its physiography 

(3) Describe the climate. (4) Tell about the plants and animals showfnt the 

Timais ? r7l h n °h th t em f nd S ° Uthe ’,' n Asia - (5) What about ‘he use made of 
Why there » m r.t,™ * T* f ® beglnn “S s of civilization probably made ? 
/-SIT n i , ., reasons why Europeans have so outstripped the Asiatics 

(8) Tell about the population of Asia and its distribution. (9) Why is Turkey in 
Asia of special interest to us ? (10) Describe its surface, climate, and industries 

(19) Teif aboutTe Hoi* -7 A T MiU ° r 8uffered W>ent invasions? 

tion 7l 1 Tel eh i * S SU,faCe; Climate : history; present condi- 

Arabia ( mi Tel^l 7 t S ° P ° tamla ' ( 14 ) Ascribe the surface and climate of 
A alua. (lo) Tell about its government, products, and principal cities ( 101 Give 

the mam facts about Persia. (17) Do the same for Afghanistan (is! Com! 
paie the aiea of Siberia with that of various countries of the world (191 What 
about the resources and future of Siberia ? (20) Tell about India: its climate mid 
suiface population ; agricultural products; forests and jungles; animals and plants • 
mineials; manufactures; famines and plagues. (21) How did flip f . ’ 

andBu7a r 'S'p 'o' ’Tt“ ‘t! C0ntl ' 0 ‘ exercised? ( 22 ) Te11 “bout Baluchiften 
taut? (24) 

you tell about Ceylon? (20) Give Siaif^Do Z 


P erg 






SUGGESTIONS 


471 


same for French Indo-China; for Straits Settlements. (28) Tell about China: 
area; number of inhabitants and their distribution; climate and rivers; people 
and their early civilization ; reasons for their lack of development; recent awaken- 
in o5 agricultural products; minerals and manufactures; government; prin¬ 
cipal cities. (20) What can you tell about Korea? (80) Tell about Japan : posi¬ 
tion, area ; physiography and climate; population; people and government; recent 
advance ; resources ; chief cities. 

Review and Comparison with North America. 1 — (1) How do North Amer¬ 
ica and Asia differ in form, coast line, islands, mountains, direction of rivers, and 
desei ts ! (2) AA hat other differences between the two continents can you mention ? 

AN hat resemblances ? (8) Is the Canadian Pacific railway north or south of the 

Siberian railway ? A\ hicli is the longer? (4) Is San Francisco north or south of 
Peking? (5) Name the three peninsulas of southern Asia; of southern Europe. 
AV hich of the six is nearest the latitude of F lorida ? (6) Name the large rivers of 

Asia and of Canada that flow into the Arctic Ocean. On a globe estimate the 
shortest distance between the mouths of the Mackenzie and Lena rivers. (7) How 
do the great rivers of China compare in length with the Mississippi? AA’ith the 
Volga ? (8) IIow do the interior lakes and seas of Asia compare in value for com- 
ineice with our Oreat Lakes i (0) AA itli what lake in North America may the 
Aral Sea be compared? (10) AVhat ocean currents affect the climate of Asia ? Of 
North America ? (11) Compare the climatic belts of Siberia with those of Canada. 

(12) Is western Asia more or less suited to agriculture and commerce than western 
Noith America i AA hy i (18) In what portion of North America and Asia is 
rice cultivated ? (14) Answer the same question for cotton. (15) AA'hat impor¬ 
tant crops in Asia are not extensively produced in the United States? (1(5) Name 
some of the leading imports from Asia to the United States. (17) AA’hat about 
mining in Asia compared with that in the United States? (18) Make the same 
comparison for manufacturing; for railways. (10) AVhat is the prevailing kind 
of government in each of the two continents? (20) Compare the population of 
the five largest cities of Asia with the five largest in North America. (21) AA'hat 
are the advantages to the United States of its control of the Philippines? The 
disadvantages? • 

Suggestions. — (1) AA'hat do you know about recent massacres of Armenian 
Christians by the Turks? (2) AVhy, do you suppose, has Turkey not laid claim to 
all of Arabia? (3) Estimate the area of the Holy Land. (4) Make a sand or 

clay map of the Holy Land (Fig. 418). (5) Point out on the map (Fig. 418) 

some of the places often mentioned in the New Testament and describe some of the 
events that occurred there. (6) AA'hat Bible events have their scene in Mesopo¬ 
tamia? (7) AATite a paper to show to what extent our present civilization is 

indebted to the Holy Land. (8) Find out some facts about the Crusades. 

(0) Find out the length of the railway across Siberia. (10) About how far is it 
by rail from Lisbon in Portugal to Port Arthur on the Pacific? (11) Read Kip¬ 
ling’s Jungle Books. (12) AVhy should the (Jreat AA’all of China have less value 
now than formerly ? (18) IIow is Peking poorly situated for the capital of so vast 

an empire? (14) Find out about our laws for the exclusion of the Chinese, and 
the reasons why they were passed. (15) Describe some of the events connected 
with the siege of the legations and the relief expeditions sent to Peking in 1900. 

For References, see Teacher's Hook. 

1 Aid in answering some of these questions may he obtained in section beginning on 
p. 219, and the Appendix. 


II. AFRICA 


Physiography. — Africa, the second continent in size, resembles 
South America in outline. Its form is roughly that of a triangle, 
broad at the north and tapering toward the south. The coast line is 
remarkably regular, in striking contrast with the coast of Europe, 
Asia, and North America, and resembling that of South America 
and Australia. W hat must be some of the consequences of such 
regularity ? What gulfs, seas, and large islands are found on the 
map of Africa. 

Africa differs from all other continents in its mountain systems. 
It is mainly a plateau, but near the coast the plateau edges are 
broken and the rocks upturned, so that there is an almost complete 
mountain rim. Trace this rim (Fig. 444) ; from what part of the 
coast is it absent ? In northern Africa the Atlas ranges reach an 
el e ^ ation of fourteen thousand feet ; but the loftiest mountains are 
in the east central part. Among the latter is the volcanic cone 
of Kilimanjai o, the highest peak on the continent. Find this peak 
and trace the mountains from there northward. Notice the elevated 
land in Abyssinia. 


Owing to the mountain rim the rivers of Africa are peculiar. For 
instance, the Niger, after rising among the highlands near the west coast, 
sweeps around in a great curve before entering the Atlantic. The Zam¬ 
bezi, in the south, also rises near the west coast, but crosses the continent 
eastward to the Indian Ocean. The Victoria Falls of the Zambezi River 
(Figs. BB and CC, p. 473) rival even the Niagara Falls in grandeur. The 
falls are more than a mile wide, but are divided by islands into three 
sections, one about 100 feet wide, and the other two about a half mile 
each. The whole enormous volume of water falls four hundred feet into 
a chasm shut in by perpendicular walls of basalt. Great clouds of vapor 
(fig. EE, p. 4%) rise 800 feet above the brink of the falls, and many rain¬ 
bows appear m the mist. Although both wider and higher than Niagara 
the volume of water is less. How high are the Niagara Falls ? 

Trace the courses of the Nile and the Kongo, the two largest rivers 
In descending from the plateau each of these streams is interrupted 
by rapids and falls. Find the Victoria Falls of the Zambezi (Fig. 443 ). 
the cataracts of the Nile; also Leopoldville on the Kongo, below which 

472 



Fiu. BB. 

^ ictoria Falls — “ Leaping Waters ” at crest of falls. 


Phutu by F. If. Sykes. 



Fiu. CC. 

Victoria Falls — Part of main falls. 

173 


Pkutu by F. W. Sykes. 












Fig. DD. 

A cluster of palms near the Pyramids in the desert region of Egypt. 


474 
















BABOON 


CHIMPANZEE 


LEOPARD 


OSTRICH 


CROCODILE 


HIPPOPOTAMUS 


GIRAFFE 


ELEPHANT 


The M N Co, Buffalo 


LION 


Fio. 442. 

Some of the African animals. 











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Fig. 444. 


-v 






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MwMIed by 

tOWIH K HOWtLL 


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475 


























476 


AFRICA 


are some falls. Rapids also occur in the Niger. How will these great 
rivers compare, therefore, with the Mississippi or Amazon as routes for 
commerce? How must these falls affect the development of Africa? 
In one part of Africa there are several large lakes. Name the three 
largest. Into what rivers do they empty ? 

Climate. —The equator crosses so near the middle of Africa that 
only the northern and southern ends are in the temperate zones. 

Therefore the climate of 
most of the continent, 
like that of South Amer¬ 
ica, is tropical. Since 
the altitude of so much 
of Africa is so nearly 
uniform, the belts of cli¬ 
mate extend nearly east 
and west. What is true 
in this respect of South 
America ? 

In equatorial Africa, 
that is for some distance 
both to the north and 
south of the equator, 
there is such a hot, rainy 
climate that, as in the 
Amazon valley, the land 
is densely covered with 
a tropical forest (Fig. 
445). This is especially 
well illustrated at the base of the plateau, where the- narrow strip of 
coast land is hot, reeking with moisture, and the seat of deadly 
malaria. These conditions have greatly interfered with exploration, 
for disease is apt to seize white men even while they are crossing 
the coastal strip. 

The interior, owing to its greater elevation, is somewhat cooler 
and less unhealthful; but even there tropical heat and rain prevail 
in the equatorial belt. It is this heavy rainfall that supplies the 
Kongo and Nile with their immense volumes of water. Both to 
the north and to the south of the rainy equatorial region is the 
savanna belt (Fig. 445), where the rainfall varies with the season. 
Why? (p. 254.) What are the conditions in the savanna? (p. 288.) 



To show the influence of climate on vegetation. In 
the savanna area there are numerous forest-covered 
sections, especially near the rivers. 







PLANTS AND ANIMALS 


4 


i i 


As the tropical forest grades into the savanna, so the savanna 
grades into the true desert (tig. 445, also p. 480), where the influ¬ 
ence of the drying trade winds is felt at all times of the year. The 
northern desert is larger and better developed than that south of the 
equator, this is due partly to the fact that the continent is so 
broad in the north, and partly to the large land areas which lie 
to the north and east — 
the directions from which 
the winds of northern 
Africa must come. On 
the mountain slopes near 
the Mediterranean there 
is moderate rainfall ; and 
likewise on the south¬ 
eastern slopes of South 
Africa where the winds 
blow from the sea. 

Plants and Animals. — 

Northern Africa is so close 
to southern Europe that 
there is a marked resem¬ 
blance between the ani¬ 
mals and plants on the 
two sides of the Mediter¬ 
ranean. The desert, however, serves as an effective barrier to their 
spread southward. 

Portions of the desert, especially where covered with dunes of 
moving sand, are almost void of plant life. Animals are also few in 
number and limited in kind, among them being the ostrich ( Fig. 442) 
and the camel. The oases (Fig. 465), on the other hand, support a 
number of plants. Of these the date palm is most notable, for it is 
an important source of food for the nomads of the desert. 

The open country between the desert and the tropical forest 
abounds in large animals (Fig. 442). Among these, on the savan¬ 
nas, and on the edge of the forest, are the antelope, giraffe, buffalo, 
zebra, elephant, lion, leopard, and rhinoceros, while the crocodile and 
the huge hippopotamus live in the rivers. The dense forest itself is 
shunned by many of the larger forms, though teeming with insect 
life, birds, reptiles, and tree-dwelling mammals. Among the latter 
are the baboon, the gorilla, and the chimpanzee (Fig. 442). 



Fig. 446. 












478 


AFRICA 



The People. — Central and southern Africa is the home of the negroes, 
who are divided into many tribes with different customs. Some are fierce 
and warlike; others peaceful; those dwelling in the forest live by hunt- 
ing; those upon the savannas, by primitive agriculture and by herding, 
for centuries they were captured by the whites and sold in slavery, but 
the day of the white slave trade is now almost past. In spite of the 
former frequency of slave-hunting raids, and the great destruction of life 
in the fierce tribal wars, there are many negroes left. With a fertile soil, 

and in a warm climate, they are able to 
support themselves with a minimum of 
work, especially along the rivers and on 
the savannas. 

While the forest and much of the 
savanna have been dominated by the negro 
even down to the present day, the arid 
sections of northern Africa have been held 
by the whites since very early times. Near 
the border line between the two races there 
has been such a mixture of blood that the 
population is largely one of half-breeds. 


Fig. 447. 


Exploration and Settlement. — The 

Indies, famed for their precious stones, 
spices, and other valuable products, 
were reached by long journeys over¬ 
land. But even before the famous 


An African negro woman planting, voyage of Columbus, the Portuguese — 

the most progressive sailors of that 
day —were engaged in an attempt to reach these distant lands by 
sailing around the southern end of Africa. After various voyages, 

the Cape of Good Hope was finally passed and the way to the Indies 
by water was opened in 1498. 


I lie Poituguese made settlements on the east and west coasts of 
Africa, and they still have extensive possessions there (Fig. 443). But 
progress toward development and settlement has been slow for various 
reasons, among which perhaps the most important is the fact that so 
much of Africa is tropical. The desert is forbidding, and the hot, damp 
climate of the coastal strip, upon which colonies were naturally first 
established, was found particularly unhealthful (p. 476). In addition 
travel into the interior was prevented by hostile hordes of blacks, and by 
the absence of navigable rivers. Moreover, those who were willing to 
leave Europe were more attracted toward the continents of Australia 
and America. Why should they be ? 






NORTIIERN A FRTCA 


470 


far the most successful settlement in the newly discovered 
parts of Africa was that made by the Dutch at Cape Colony, a little 
later than their settlement of New York. As in the case of New 
York, the British seized their territory. 

During the nineteenth century Livingstone, Stanley, and others 
entered the “dark continent”; and since their efforts, exploration 
lias been rapid. Many European nations have taken part in the 
exploration, and as a result have claimed territory. But the British 
have been by far the most active. What other nations have posses¬ 
sions there ? (Fig. 443.) 


Northern Africa 

Political Divisions. — Much of northern Africa is such a desert 
that its inhabitants are few and scattered. It is, however, under 
the control of various nations. The greater part of the Sahara is 
claimed by the French, though the Spanish hold a small section on 
the western coast, and the Hritish control both the I, i by an desert 
and the Egyptian Sudan in the east. Along the Mediterranean 



Fio. 44S. 

A pyramid in the desert near Cairo—one of the remarkable works of the ancient Egyptians. 


coast are several well-settled sections, the best known being Egypt. 
The four countries west of Egypt — Tripoli, Tunis, Algeria, and Mo¬ 
rocco— are often called the Barbary Staten (t\\Q home of the Berbers). 





480 


AFRICA 


The Sahara. — From the Atlantic to the Red Sea, and from near 
the Mediterranean to the grass lands of the Sudan, there is almost 
unbroken desert — the famous Sahara. Its area is estimated to be 
from three to four million square miles, or about equal to that of the 
entire United States. It is a plateau of uneven surface, with moun¬ 
tain ranges here and there, and bordered on the north by the Atlas 
Mountains. The wind-swept highlands are bare and stony, while 
the lowlands have extensive areas of sand dunes. 

Much of the soil is fertile, and with rainfall would yield abun¬ 
dant crops. But nature has forbidden rain, and its surface is there¬ 
fore barren in the extreme. Only on the oases, of which there are 
some four hundred in the Sahara, is there the necessary drinking 
water which renders human life possible in the desert. 

Caravans cross this desert, one of the important routes being from 
Tafilet in Morocco, southward to Timbuktu. There may be from a thou¬ 
sand to fifteen hundred camels in one caravan, and a full year may be 
required to equip it. Each camel is carefully selected by the chief of the 
caravan, and many extra camels are taken along to replace those that give 
out on the journey. There is one driver for every dozen camels. 



Fig. 449. 


A nomad camp on the northern edge of the Sahara. 

Upon starting, the loads are carefully packed on the camels’ backs, 
each animal bearing about three hundred pounds. A day’s march lasts 
sixteen hours, the camels traveling some thirty abreast at the rate of 
about two miles an hour. Ordinary camels cannot travel more than three 
days without drinking; but the better grades are able to go for six or seven 
days without water and with almost no food. The trip across the Sahara, 




EGYPT 


481 


from north to south, requires fully three months. Estimate the distance. 
At best nearly a third of the animals perish in the round trip; and before 
the return journey is undertaken it is necessary for those surviving to 
have a rest of several weeks. 

An advance party precedes the caravan to make arrangements for 
camping and for water. Many roundabout journeys are necessary to pass 
deep valleys and plateaus, for caravans go around rather than over obsta¬ 
cles. The daytime is hot; but as soon as the sun sets, the temperature 
rapidly falls and the nights become cold even in midsummer. • 

There are dangers in the journey aside from that of thirst. Some¬ 
times sand storms arise; and although such a storm may not last a half- 
hour, it may destroy a whole caravan. The wind blows violently, and 
sand tills the air and drifts about in such quantities that animals and men 
alike are suffocated in the drifts. Also small caravans may be attacked 
by wandering tribes of warlike natives; and near the southern edge of the 
desert the danger from attack by the lion is added. It evidently requires 
courage and great powers of endurance to engage in the caravan trade. 



Caravans which cross the desert carry the products of central 
Africa to the coast. These include ivory, skins, and ostrich feathers 
obtained by bartering with the negroes. 

Egypt and the Neighboring British Territory. — Egypt proper and 
the Libyan desert are parts of the broad Sahara and have all the 
features of the desert just described. Even at Cairo the average 
yearly rainfall is but an 
inch and a half. In cli¬ 
mate, both for summer 
. and winter, northern 
Egypt closely resembles 
the desert portion of 
western Arizona and 
southeastern California. 

The Nile. - The Egyp¬ 
tian Sudan and the 
country south of it, on 

4 / 

the other hand, have a 
tropical climate, arid in 
the north, but warm and 
humid in the south, where 
the influence of the trop¬ 
ical rains is felt. The 

headwaters of the Nile, Fio. 450 . 

near the equator, are fed Sudanese people from the Egyptian Sudan. 








482 


AFRICA 


by such heavy rains that the river is able to flow across the desert 
in spite of the fact that no tributaries enter the lower half of its 
course. How great a distance is that ? 

Without the Nile the whole of northern Egypt would be a sparsely 



The lower Nile. The shaded area between the two deserts is farming land which is reached 
by water from the river. The numerous crossed lines are railways. Find the Pyramids. 
Why is the location at the head of a fertile delta, and at the outlet of a narrow river 
valley bounded by desert, a favorable one for a large city ? 

inhabited deseit (Fig. 44S) ; but the precious river waters transform 
the section near the Mediterranean (Fig. 451) into a great oasis which 
has become the seat of an important agricultural industry, and is 
densely populated. 















EG YPT 


483 


After leaving the region of equatorial rains and the savannas, the Nile 
crosses the desert through a valley — in places a thousand feet in depth — 
which it has cut in the plateau. In this part of its course there are several 
cataracts (see Fig. 443). The Nile resembles the Colorado River of the 
United States, which, after leaving the Rocky Mountains, flows in a deep 
canyon across the arid plateau of Arizona; but the canyon of the Colorado 
is much deeper than that of the Nile. Relow r Cairo the river leaves its 
narrow valley, divides into several channels, and flow's across a plain (Fig. 
451). This plain is the delta which the Nile has built in the Mediterranean 



Fig. 452. 

The Sphinx and two of the Pyramids. 

Sea during the ages that the river has been bringing sediment from its 
upper course. It is the Nile that suggested the geographical term, delta, 
now applied to similar deposits at the mouths of rivers in various parts of 
the world. The word comes from the Greek letter delta (A), which has 
the form of a triangle. Notice that shape in Figure 451. 

\V1 len the rainy season comes to the Nile tributaries among the 
Abyssinian mountains, the river rises so high that it overflows large 
tracts of the broad delta below Cairo. The rise begins in June and 
reaches its height in October. By this overflow not only is the land 
irrigated, but a thin layer of tine mud is spread over the fields. This 
serves so to fertilize the soil that, year after year, heavy crops may 
be raised without making the soil sterile. 

33—A O 







484 


AFRICA 


Agriculture. — In consequence of these remarkably favorable con¬ 
ditions, the Nile delta has been occupied by an agricultural people 
from the very earliest times. It is still the seat of a great grain 
industry, producing wheat, corn, millet, and barley. Much rice and 
sugar cane are also raised, and cotton which is of especial value 
because of its long fiber. There are many vineyards, and orange, 
lemon, and fig groves ; and both along the Nile and on the oases of 
the desert there are groves of date palms (Fig. DD, p. 474). 
Grazing is of importance in the Nile Valley and on the neighboring 
plateau. The animals raised include the buffalo and camel in addi¬ 
tion to sheep, goats, cattle, horses, and donkeys. 

The People. — The known history of Egypt reaches back several 
thousand years before the time of Christ. The fertile soil and favor¬ 
able climate, added to the protection from frequent wars which the 
surrounding desert and sea afforded, encouraged the development of 

industry and thrift. By the mixture of agri¬ 
cultural and pastoral races there arose a civili¬ 
zation in advance of that of the neighboring 
sections- of Europe and Asia. In fact, at the 
time when Europe was inhabited by barbarians, 
and the peoples of. western Asia were unor¬ 
ganized, Egypt had made long advances in 
civilization. 

We read in the Bible of the Pharaohs who ruled 
over Egypt. Can you recall any of the Bible stories 
which relate to these rulers; for example, the story 
of Joseph? During those times the Egyptians built 
the obelisks (Fig. 453), the sphinx (Fig. 452), and 
those marvelous structures the pyramids (Fig. 448), 
which are really the tombs of kings. By a peculiar 
process they preserved the bodies of their dead, and 
these mummies may he seen in the museums of 
many large cities. Among the mummies are the 
remains of the Pharaohs themselves. 

In the movement westward of the people who dwelt along the 
eastern shores of the Mediterranean and farther east in Asia, Egypt 
became one of the highways of the world. Against its people many 
destructive wars were waged, and the country has been repeatedly 
invaded. As other nations have advanced, the Egyptians have 
steadily lost ground. 







EGYPT 


485 


At present Egypt is required to pay annual tribute to Turkejq 
but she is otherwise practically independent of Turkey ; and- the 
mler, or Khedive, is an hereditary monarch. The government of 
kg) pt w as so bad that the trench and British finally stepped in 
and took control of the finances of the nation. When the French 
declined to aid in subduing a rebellion in Egypt, the British alone 
assumed a large share in the control of Egyptian affairs. 

As a result of British direction there has recently been marked 
progress in Egypt. Extensive irrigation works have been under- 



Fio. 4:4 


The Suez Canal at Port Said. 


taken, and the land area for cotton and sugar cane lias thereby been 
greatly increased. By means of reservoirs and canals it is further 
proposed to reclaim thousands of square miles of the desert. Several 
railway lines have also been built (Fig. 451), including a part of 
the proposed line from Cairo to Cape Town. Outside of the Nile 
Valley, however, travel still depends largely upon the use of camels 
(Fig. 448). 

Suez Canal. —Northeastern Egypt includes the Isthmus of Suez, 
which connects Africa with Asia. This narrow neck of land has 
for centuries stood as a barrier to water travel from Europe to 
southeastern Asia, compelling European vessels to pass all the way 
around Africa in order to reach southern Asia. 















486 


AFRICA 


The Suez Canal, begun in 1859, was completed in 1869. It extends 
from Suez to Port Said (Fig. 445), and is eighty-seven miles long, with 
a depth of twenty-six feet and a width at the surface varying from sixty-five 
to one hundred and twenty yards. Its length is much greater than that 
of the proposed Panama Canal, but the difficulties of construction were 
less. The country is very level, and a part of the course (about twenty- 
one miles) is through a lake. Ten vessels on an average pass through the 
Suez Canal each day. Estimate the distance saved by this canal in going 
from London to Calcutta. By agreement among nations it cannot be cap¬ 
tured and closed in time of war. 

Cities. — At the head of the delta, just above the point where the 
Nile branches (Fig. 451), is Cairo, the capital and largest city of 
Egypt and, in fact, of all Africa. It is about the size of St. Louis, 
having a population of 570,000. This interesting place is visited 
each year by a stream of tourists, some seeking a winter health 
resort, others attracted by the strange life of the country and the 
remarkable ruins of the old civilization (Figs. 448, 452, and 453). 

Cairo itself contains the palace of the Khedive, several interesting 
mosques, and a museum in which are preserved many Egyptian antiqui¬ 
ties and works of art. The inhabitants also attract attention, for in the 
streets may be seen many people with different languages and peculiar 
customs. The differences among the people may be illustrated by the 

following fact: there are 
three Sabbaths each week, 
Friday, the Sabbath of the 
Mohammedans, Saturday, ob¬ 
served by the Jews, and 
Sunday, by the Christians. 

Alexandria, con¬ 
nected with Cairo by rail 
(Fig. 451), is the seaport 
of Egypt and the second 
city in size in the country. 
The chief business is the 
export of cotton, sugar, 
grain, and other Egyptian 
products, and the impor¬ 
tation of manufactured 
goods. More than half the 

An Arab school in the streets of Cairo. , . 

trade is with Great Britain. 



Fio. 455. 









TIIE liAliliARY STATES 


487 


The Barbary States. — Find the position of each of these four 
countries. Each borders the Mediterranean, but extends southward 
into the desert (p. 479). 




Fig. 456. 

The costume of women in Algeria. 


The Atlas Mountains skirt the Mediterranean coast from the Atlantic 
to Tunis, where their projection into the Mediterranean forms the most 
northerly point in Africa. These 
mountains contain many valuable 
mineral products, including precious 
metals in Morocco and Algeria, and 
marble and alabaster in the latter 
country. 

Since the Atlas Mountains cause 
vapor to be condensed when winds 
blow from the ocean or from the 
Mediterranean, many of the valleys 
are well watered. Forests cover 
some of the mountain slopes, and 
one of the valuable trees is the cork 
oak, the bark of which is removed 
for shipment from Algeria to Spain and Portugal. Camels, sheep*, 
goats, and cattle are raised among the mountains and upon the plateaus. 

Agricultuie is carried on 
here and there, often by 
means of irrigation, with 
water supplied by the 
mountain snows and rains, 
as in southern California. 
The villages are therefore 
situated where valleys open 
to the plains. Among the 
crops produced, besides dates 
and grains, are tigs, grapes, 
and olives. Wine from the 
grapes of Algeria is shipped 
in large quantities to France; 
and the best olive oil and the 
l est dates in the world come 
from Tunis. 

The original occupants 
of this region, the Berbers, 
still dwell on the desert and 
among the mountains, hav¬ 
ing been driven there long 
ago by invading Arabs. Most of the inhabitants are Mohammedans. 
Tripoli is still a Turkish province, but Tunis and Algeria are held by 
France. However, the native ruler, or Bey, of Tunis is permitted to 


Fig. 457. 

Church of Notre Dame in Algiers. 















488 


AFRICA 


direct affairs in his country under the supervision of France. Mo¬ 
rocco is the .only one of the Barbary States that maintains independ¬ 
ence, being ruled by an absolute monarch, or Sultan. Can you suggest 

why the conflicting interests of Spain, France, and England should pre- 
vent conquest by any one ? 

Conditions of life in Morocco are shown by the following: The writer 
once visited a school in Tangier consisting of a dozen boys from nine to 
ten years of age. The room where they studied received its only light 
from the open door, and it contained no seats, desks, or furniture of any 
und. the children sat on the floor in a semicircle around a longdieardecl 
old man, who likewise sat on the floor, and the only object they had before 
them was a page from the Koran, or Mohammedan Bible. What does 
such a condition of education indicate in regard to progress ? If this 
is the case on the coast, almost within the shadow of Europe, what must 
be the condition farther inland ? 

rhe capitals are the principal cities among the Barbary States, 
b ez, one of the capitals of Morocco, is in the interior; but the 
Sultan and his court do not reside there all the year. Name the 
other capital. Tangier, on the coast, is better known. Why should 
it be? In Algeria, the seaport Algiers is the capital and largest 
city. It is an interesting place, combining many features of ancient 
and modern times. Under the French it has become an important 
trading center. The same is true of Tunis, the capital of the 
country by that name. Locate the capital of Tripoli. 


Southern Africa 

’ C ° mparison with Northern Africa. - In some important respects 
there is a resemblance between northern and southern Africa, 
although they he in different hemispheres. What similarities are 
there in climate (p. 476) and physiography (p. 472)? There is a 
resemblance, too, in the fact that both sections have lono- been 
settled by white men. What difference is there in the length of 
occupation by white men? ■ • 

The People. — it is to the Dutch that we owe the first important 
development of South Africa. Settling at Cape Town, and then 
spreading over the neighboring region, they took possession of the 
country occupied by the negroes and introduced the European 

industries of farming and ranching. 

When Cape Colony came into possession of the British (p. 479) 
many of the Dutch remained; but.others emigrated, or “trekked ” 
northward and found new homes in the interior. There they 



SO U Til Eli X A Fine A 


489 


established two republics, the Transvaal and the Orange Free State, 
in which they desired to continue the customs of their forefathers 
and live in the pursuit of agriculture and herding. 

Doubtless the Boers , as these people are called, would have been 
left to themselves but for the discovery of wonderfully rich depos- 



Fia. 4. r >8. 

A Zulu woman making a straw mat. 


its of gold. The mines were developed by British capital, and 
friction arose between the mine owners and the Boers. War fol¬ 
lowed, as a result of which the Transvaal and the Orange Free State 
were declared British col¬ 


onies in 1900. 

At present, therefore, the 
British control a broad strip 
from the southern tip of 
Africa northward to the 
southern end of Lake Tan¬ 
ganyika. W'liat are the names 
of the British colonies in 
South Africa (Fig. 44.4) ? 
What nations control the 
land to the east and west of 
the British possessions?. 
Besides the Boers there are 
many British in South 
Africa, especially in (’ape 
Colony and at the gold mines 



Fig. 4f>9. 


A pineapple tieM in South Africa. 










490 


AFRICA 


of the Transvaal. There are also large numbers of negroes in this region, 
particularly in the tropical section and in Zululand in northern Natal 
(Fig. 458). Some of them, like the Zulus, have fiercely opposed the 
encroachment of the whites and still maintain semi-independent states. 
They are, however, making rapid progress toward civilization. 

Agriculture and Grazing. — Along the east coast, and in some of 
the interior valleys, agriculture is an important industry. Sugar, 



Fig. 400. 

Cattle in tlie Transvaal. 


bananas, pineapples (Fig. 459), tea, coffee, and rice are raised near 
the coast, where the climate is warm and damp. But wheat, tobacco, 
vegetables, and grapes are produced in the cooler south, and upon 
tlie uplands wherever the rainfall is sufficient or irrigation possible. 

By far the greater part of South Africa is an arid plateau, and 
its elevation causes cold winters in spite of the latitude. Forests 
are absent, and little wood is found except that which comes from 
the thorny acacia bushes of the plains, and the willows and other 
trees that grow along the streams. Except in the real desert 
the grass springs into life after the summer rains (November and 
December), and the country becomes green and beautiful. Then 
follows a long drought, when the vegetation withers. But, as in 
the arid part of western United States, the dried grass is a sort of 
natural hay upon which cattle and sheep thrive. 

Upon this plateau, therefore, immense numbers of cattle, sheep, 





SOUTHERN AFRICA 


491 


• 

and goats are raised, and also many ostriches. It is estimated that 
in Cape Colony alone there are over eighteen million sheep and goats, 
nearly two million cattle, and three hundred and fifty thousand 
ostriches. In consequence, the production of wool, hides, meat, and 
ostiich feathers is of great importance. Of what value are these 
products to Great Britain ? 

Mineral Wealth. — The discovery of gold in South Africa has 
biought great changes, as among the mountains in the arid section 
of western United States. 1 his metal is found scattered through a 
conglomerate rock in the 1 ransvaal, near the city of Johannesburg, 
which on that account has become the largest city of South Africa. 
1 his district has become the most important in gold production in 
the world; in 1906 more gold was mined here than in the entire 
United States. 

Other valuable minerals, including copper, iron, and coal, also 
occur; but as yet they have been little developed. At Kimberley 
in ( ape C olony, however, are diamond mines, which now supply 
ninety-eight per cent of the world’s diamond product. 


r lhe diamonds occur as rough crystals in a decomposed volcanic rock, 
and are obtained by digging out the soft rock and carefully removing 



Fio. 4<)1. 

Cape Town, with Table Mountain (.T>00 feet high) in the distance. 








492 


AFRICA 



the crystals. After this the crystals must be cut into the proper shape 
and polished. There are various grades, some clear and beautiful, others 
impure and dull. So productive is this deposit of precious stones that 
$160,000,000 worth have been removed in eleven years. There is only a 
limited demand for diamonds; but the company in control is careful not 
to mine enough of them to reduce the price greatly. This is possible, 
since the Kimberley mine owners have practically a monopoly of the dia¬ 
mond production of the world. 

Commerce and Cities. -— The two chief rivers of South Africa are 
of little use as trade routes. The Orange River is not navigable, 
because of lack of water and the presence of rapids at the edge of the 
plateau. The other, the Zambezi, is navigable by small boats for a 


Fig. 4G2. 

A scene at the market in Kimberley. Oxen are extensively used by the Boers as draught 

animals. 

distance of three hundred miles from its mouth; but the climate 
near the coast, especially on the delta, is warm and unhealthful. 
Rapid water checks further navigation, for at this point are the 
Victoria Falls (Figs. BB, CC). 

Nor is the coast especially favorable to commerce. -For long 
distances there are no good harbors, while the river mouths are 
choked with sand bars which render entrance difficult. A break¬ 
water has made Table Bay a good port, and around its shores, 
beautifully situated at the base of the Table Mountain (Fig. 461), 
is Cape Town, the capital and largest city of Cape Colony. It is 
connected with the interior bj r a railway line, the southern end of 
the proposed railway from Cape Town to Cairo. 





CENTRAL AFRICA 


. 493 


A second important harbor is that of Delagoa Bay, upon which is situ¬ 
ated LouRExgo Marquez, the capital of Portuguese East Africa. Being 
connected by rail with the interior, this port has been much used for the 
shipment of Transvaal products. Durban, the seaport of Natal, is a 
small city also connected with the Transvaal by rail. The two principal 
interior cities are Kimberley and Johannesburg (p. 491). There is no 
important town in German South Africa, which is for the most part an 
arid plateau. To what nation does t Valjisch lluy belong? 


Central Africa 

This vast area is in large part a great unknown. Much of it is 
tropical forest ; but on the northern and southern sides are open 
savannas (p. 288). 

The Rivers. — Owing to the heavy rainfall of the forest belt, the 
rivers are large. Idle Nile and Zambezi, already described, and the 
Niger and Kongo, all receive water from the equatorial rains. The 
Niger is navigable in sections ; but there are rapids in some parts, 
and in its northern portion the river dwindles in size because of the 
dry climate. 

It is the immense Kongo, which empties into the sea a few 
degrees south of the equator, that offers the best means of entrance 
to Central Africa. Although it is interrupted by a series of falls a 
short distance from the coast, above Stanley Pool there are thousands 
of miles of navigable waters in the main river and its tributaries. 


It was Stanley who first explored the Kongo, in 1876; and since that 
time this part of Africa has been rapidly developing. Formerly it was 
necessary to carry goods around the rapids, each native porter carrying about 
sixty pounds. Only in this way was Stanley able to carry his boats to the 
navigable portion farther up stream. Now, however, a railway two hundred 
and fifty miles in length connects the lower Kongo with Leopoldville on 
Stanley Pool above the falls. Thence, at all seasons of the year, steamers 
may go a thousand miles up the river and also into many tributaries. 

The People. — Very few Europeans have settled in Central Africa, and 
the native blacks live almost as their ancestors did. Most of the inhab¬ 
itants live in ingeniously built huts clustered in villages (Fig. 464). They 
have a kind of tribal government, each tribe having a leader whose power 
is absolute, and under whom are minor chiefs. Some of the tribes are can¬ 
nibals. In religion they vary greatly, though all are intensely super¬ 
stitious (p- 278). 

Among the blacks none are more remarkable than the pygmies whom 
Stanley discovered in the equatorial forests, where large numbers live in 
an area of about thirty thousand square miles. The adults are only three 
or four feet in height. They live exclusively by hunting, by gathering 


494 


AFRICA 




Fig. 463. 

A steamer on the Kongo. 

the vegetable products of the forest, and by theft from the neighboring 
agricultural tribes. Their villages are usually built in the forest where 
two paths cross, and the huts are shaped like a turtle’s back, being about 
four and a half feet high, ten feet long, and five or six feet wide. In that 
hot climate they find little need for clothing. 


Fig. 464. 

A view on the savanna of Africa, a negro village in the foreground. 


ilfSSS 






















CENTRAL AFRICA 


495 


With a small spear, a short bow with poisoned arrows, and a knife 
they hunt with wonderful skill, and by means of pitfalls they capture 
even the elephant. They know the forest intimately, and neither bird nor 
beast can escape them. According to Stanley they offer one of the greatest 
obstacles to exploration; for they appear stealthily, attack a party with 
great courage, and then disappear in the trackless woods. 


Divisions of Central Africa. — European nations have been active 
in claiming the greater part of Central Africa; but their control 
ovei the native inhabitants is merely nominal, and the boundaries of 
the different sections are not well defined. 

The Sudan includes the vast area between the Sahara and the 



Fig. 405. 


Oasis of Biskra in the Sahara. 

tropical forest. What can you tell about its climate? (p. 47G.) 
More than half of the Sudan is claimed by the French, and most of 
the remainder, including the Niger Territories and the Egyptian 
Sudan , is held by the British. The inhabitants are nomadic in the 
north, and agricultural in the south, though they raise little more 
than is needed for their own use. There is some gold in the west; 
but the principal products are ivory, ostrich feathers, and gums. 

East of the Sudan is Abyssinia , which is for the most part a rocky 
plateau crossed by mountains and difficult of access. Its condition is 
indicated by the fact that the capital is periodically changed when the 
supply of firewood is exhausted. It is evident, therefore, that there 
are no government buildings. The inhabitants are mainly whites belong- 




















49(3 


A Fine A 



Fig. EE. 


Photo hy F. W. Sykes. 


Victoria Falls— Chasm ami Livingstone Island. 
Notice the vapor rising, obstructing view of falls. 


ing to very different tribes which are often hostile to one another. Many 
of the people still hold to Christianity, notwithstanding the invasion by 
Mohammedans nearly four centuries ago. Italy holds Eritrea and Italian 
Somaliland. What other nations occupy a part of the coast on the border 
of Abyssinia ? 






CENTRAL AFRICA 


497 


The map shows several small countries on the west coast of Africa in 
the part marked Upper Guinea. Find Lower Guinea. The divisions col¬ 
ored pink belong to the British; those marked green to the Germans. 

One of the divisions of Upper Guinea is Liberia , which is of special 
interest to Americans. It is a negro republic established by Americans 
as a home for freed slaves, and its capital, Monrovia, is named after 
President Monroe. No white man is permitted to become a citizen. 
Besides uncivilized negroes in the interior, the republic includes fully 
twenty thousand negroes with some knowledge of civilization, all living 
near the coast. The coastal strip is damp and unhealthful; but behind it 
is the forest-covered plateau slope. The products are chiefly coffee, palm 
oil, and sugar. It was the example set by the British in founding Sierra 
Leone as a home for liberated slaves, that led to the establishment of the 
republic of Liberia. 


Kongo State , crossed by the equator and drained by the Kongo 
and its tributaries, was founded by the king of Belgium, who sup¬ 
ported Stanley in his explorations of this region. It is in large part 
a forest-covered plateau ; but there are sections of grass land. 
Hordes of savages, including the pygmies, inhabit the forests and 
savannas ; the buffalo, elephant, and leopard live on the plains ; 
and the roar of the lion is frequently heard. 

Through the building of the railway around the cataract of the 
Kongo, and by the aid of steamers above and below the falls, the 
resources of this great area are beginning to be drawn upon. From 
it are obtained large quantities of ivory, rubber, palm oil, gum, and 
pepper, as well as tropical woods. 

East of the Kongo State are British and German territories. What 
are they called? What is their climate? What products would you 
expect? Observe to what extent the British claim Africa. What break 
is there in the British territory between the Cape of Good Hope and the 
Mediterranean ? What variety of climate does the British territory include? 


Need of Railways. — One of the great needs of Central Africa is 
railways for transportation to and from the sea. The three large 
lakes, Nyassa, Tanganyika, and Victoria Nyanza, are of great service 
in the transportation of goods, and already there are steamers upon 
them. Elsewhere caravans of native porters bear the products on 
their backs, traveling along narrow paths through the forest. 

As a result of British and German energy we may expect that 
railways will soon reach the various parts of the interior of Africa, 
in fact a railway to Victoria Nyanza is already well under way 
(Fig. 443). 


498 


AFRICA 


Islands near Africa 


The large island of Madagascar, which is larger than any of our 
States except lexas, is two hundred and thirty miles from the 
mainland. There is much highland in the country, especially on the 
eastern side, but the coastal region is lowland. The island is con- 
tioiled by the trench, and produces cattle, hides, valuable tropical 
woods, rubber, and coffee. While there are some Arabs, and tribes 
of negro origin in the west, the natives are for the most part Malays, 
called Hovas , who came by water from the northeast. 

Of the many small islands near the coast of Africa the northernmost 
are the Madeira Islands on the west side. These, together with the Cape 
Verde Islands farther southwest, have belonged to Portugal since the early 
Portuguese voyages of discovery. The Spanish Canary Islands lie between 
these two groups. Find other islands along the west coast (Fio- 443) 
which belong to Spain and Portugal. 

Ascension Island and St. Helena, south of the equator, are, like the 
above-named groups, volcanic. They belong to Great Britain, and St. 
Helena, attained notoriety as the prison home of Napoleon Bonaparte, 
lhe principal small islands on the eastern side of Africa are Zanzibar 

\ F1 ^ S l 1 ) near tlie coas b Reunion (French) and Mauritius (British) east 
of Madagascar. Locate each of these (Fig. 443). Find other French 
and British islands. These islands are of value as naval stations. Their 
inhabitants are engaged in fishing and in agriculture, raising sugar cane 
and other tropical products. 


i 

i v —j '• “•*« uAic jiceu oi railways / 




RABBIT 


ECHIDNA 


KOALA 


APTERYX 


CASSOWARY 


EMU 


PLATYPUS 


KANGAROO 


MNCo.BufrAio. 


Fig. -kid. 

Some Australian animals. The platypus lays eggs like a bird or reptile. The kangaroo, 
like other marsupials, carries its unprotected young in a pouch. Where else have we 
found large running birds like the emu? 





Fig.467. 

Map Qitest.cns. -(1) Judging from the railways and cities, which is the best-settled 
part of Australia ? (2) Which part is least settled ? (3) What reasons can you suggest for 

the Lterior? ran” T riVerS ’ wbat do you ,nfer concerning the climate of 

the mtenor. (5) How does Tasmania compare in area with Pennsylvania? (Appendix.) 

























































































With your own state? (6) Make the same comparison for New Zealand. (7) Make a list 
of the island groups belonging to the United States; to Great Britain; Germany; the 
Netherlands; France. (8) What nations claim parts of Borneo? New Guinea? (!)) Find 
the area of each of these islands (Appendix) and compare it with the area of 3'cur own 
state. 






































































Fig. 468, 









SFGGESTIONS 


409 


Review and Comparison. — (1) Give several reasons why Africa has been 
explored and settled so much later than either North or South America. (2) What 
rivers of North America resemble those of Africa in having rapids and falls that 
interfere with commerce? (3) Contrast the Mississippi River with the Nile. 
Majce a drawing of each, showing the principal tributaries and towns. (4) Com¬ 
pare the Kongo with the Missouri in length; with the Amazon (Appendix). 
(5) Compare the area of Lake Victoria Nyanza with that of Lake Superior 
(Appendix). ((5) Is Africa on the whole as well adapted to agriculture as is 
South America? Give your reasons. (7) Contrast the Victoria Falls with 
Niagara Falls. (S) What part of America is in the same latitude as the Sahara? 
Cape Horn is how much farther south than the Cape of Good Hope? (9) Why 
is not a large part of northern South America a desert, like northern Africa? 
(10) Compare southern Africa with southern South America in products and 
importance. Why the difference ? 


Suggestions. — (1) W hat per cent of the present population of the United 
States belongs to the negro race? (2) How do the negroes-compare with the 
Indians in their willingness and ability to adopt civilized customs? (3) Read the 
Bible story of Joseph in Egypt. (4) Read the story of Moses. (5) Find out some 
facts about the Pyramids. (0) Why is England especially benefited by the Suez 
Canal? (7) Find some facts about Livingstone, Mungo Park, Stanley, and oilier 
African explorers. (8) Find out about Kruger and the British war with the Boers 
in 1900. (9) Why was the southern point of Africa called the Cape of Good 

Hope? 


For References, 


see Teacher's Book. 



A crocodile on the bank of the Nile. 


34—A G 








III. AUSTRALIA AND ISLAND GROUPS 


Australia 

; 

Physiography. —Australia lies apart from the rest of the world, 
an island continent in the water hemisphere and the only continent 
wholly in the southern hemisphere. Isolated for ages, its plants 
and animals differ (Fig. 466) from those in other parts of the earth. 
With its area of nearly three million square miles, it approaches, the 
United States or Europe in size. But it has been settled by Euro¬ 
peans so recently, and so much of its surface is desert (Fig. 467), 
that it is much less densely populated than the other continents. 
Much of the interior is practically unexplored, partly because of 
the desert and partly because of the absence of interior navigable 
waters. 

The surface, like that of Ireland, suggests a plate in form, since 
the low interior rises gradually to plateaus and mountains which 
often descend steeply toward the sea. While there are some low, 
short ranges in the interior, the highest land is in the east, where the 
mountains run parallel to the coast. In the southeast some of the 
peaks reach a height of over a mile. 

< i 

The mountains of eastern Australia, like the Appalachians of North 
America, are the worn-down remains of an ancient mountain system. ' 
Still fuithei like the Appalachians, they served to check the extension 
of early settlements inland. Tasmania is really a continuation of the 
eastern highland, as Newfoundland is a continuation of the mountains 
of eastern North America. 

The streams which flow eastward to the Pacific, cascade down 
the mountains in short courses. Of the others in eastern Australia 
some end in the lakes of interior basins, and some evaporate in the 
dry climate ; but many unite with the Darling and Murray rivers, 
which are at times navigable for long distances. During the dry 
summer season, however, all except the Murray may dwindle to 
mere chains of water holes. A wave-built bar at the mouth of the 
Murray closes it to ocean steamers, so that, unlike the Mississippi, 
no large cities have grown up along its banks. 

500 


CL IMA TE 


501 


The coast line of Australia is so regular that there are few good har¬ 
bors except in the southern part where the land has recently subsided. 


Off the northeastern coast is the Great Barrier Reef, the longest coral 
reef in the world. This has been built by coral animals, which still thrive 
there in great numbers. A few openings allow ships to enter the quiet 
channel between the reef and the land; but navigation is not easy, and 
only an experienced pilot can avoid the dangerous shoals. 



Climate. — Since Australia lies within the belt of the southeast 
trade winds, 
the eastern 
highland has an 
abundant rain¬ 
fall on its sea¬ 
ward side and 
is clothed with 
dense forests. 

After crossing 
mountains, 
however, the 
winds are so 
dry that the 
forest gradu¬ 
ally disappears, 
changing first 
to open, park- 
like woodlands, 
then to grass- 
covered up¬ 
lands, and 

finally to desert Fl °* 

lowlands, Still Eucalyptus forest in Australia. 

partly unexplored. The low interior mountain ranges cause only a 
slight rainfall which supplies the salt lakes of the interior. 

During the southern winter the interior becomes cold, and the 
heavy air presses outward toward the coast as cold land winds; but 
during the summer the dry interior is so intensely heated that mon¬ 
soon winds blow from the northeast and bring equatorial rain to the 
northern coasts. In this section are found areas ot tropical forest. 
Southwestern Australia and Tasmania are reached by the prevailing 
westerlies, with their cyclonic storms, which bring variable weather 












502 


AUSTRALIA 



and rainfall, as in eastern United States. These rainy sections are 
also clothed with forests. 

It is therefore only along portions of the coast that there is 
enough rainfall for agriculture, while the interior, and much the 
greater part of the continent, is either arid or actual desert. Much of 
the interior is adapted to stock raising, though some parts are too arid 
for that; but the southeastern coast, with an equable climate which 

reminds us of the Mediterranean, 
would support a dense population. 

Plants. —Australian vegetation 
is not only peculiar, but also strik¬ 
ingly adapted to the climate of the 
country. In the interior, as in other 
desert regions, grass and flowering 
plants have gained the power to make 
rapid growth and to mature their 
seeds quickly, so that a few days after 
a rain the barren sands become car¬ 
peted with green as if by magic. 


Fig. 470. 

Undergrowth in the Australian forest. 


Among the desert grasses, one of the 
most remarkable is the porcupine grass 
which grows on the sandy plains of the 
northwest interior, and is so hard, wiry, 
and spiny as to prevent passage through 
it. Plants -with leaves which taste of 
salt also thrive here, being fitted for 
growth on plains that are too dry and 
alkaline for grass. These “ salt bushes ” 


are so valuable as forage for sheep and cattle that they are now introduced 
into the arid section of southwestern United States. 

The scrub trees that flourish in the arid interior have developed- 
foliage able to resist evaporation. In these interior forests, which the 
settlers call “ scrub,” the thorny acacia and the close-set stems of gum — 
rising to a height of a dozen feet—forma thicket through which a lost 
traveler may wander until death relieves his thirst. 

On the rainy slopes near the coast the gum trees grow to a great size, 
in some cases four hundred feet in height. They rival the redwoods of 
California, which also thrive where damp winds blow from the ocean. 


The undergrowth of the forest (Fig. 470), which is almost tropical in 
character, includes tree ferns, palms, and orchids. These dense woods 
are called the “ bush.” 


History.—When discovered, Australia was sparsely settled by blacks 
allied to the negroes of Africa, but differing from them in many respects. 



PEO PL E A N I) G 0 VERNMEN T 


508 


Of these savages it is estimated that about seventy thousand remain, of 
whom about a third still wander in the wild interior, scantily clad (Fig. 
4 1 1), building the rudest of shelters, and gaining their living by hunting. 
They still use that peculiar weapon, the boomerang, which, when properly 
thrown, will fly in curves and even return to the thrower. 

Although for a long time it had been known that there was an Austra¬ 
lian continent, settlements were not made there until 1788. Neither the 
country nor the products w r ere tempting to the early Spanish and Dutch 
explorers, and those nations colonized other lands of greater promise. It 
was not until the famous English navigator, Captain Cook, led an expedition 
to this southern continent that the fertile southeastern coast was discovered. 

For a time the distant land was used as a regular penal station to 
relieve the crowded condition of English jails, and naturally free settlers 
came to the country slowly. But their number gradually increased, and, 
after long agitation, the transportation of criminals was stopped. 

Almost at the same time that gold was discovered in California it 
was also found in southeastern Australia, and tens of thousands of people 
rushed there to wash the sands for the precious metal. Since the miners 
needed supplies, many of the settlers turned their attention to other indus¬ 
tries, especially agriculture and grazing. Therefore in Australia, as in 
California, the gold mines led quickly to the development of the country’s 
resources. 

New South Wales, as the first colony was called, finally grew so large, 
and the settlements were so scattered, that it became difficult to control it 
under a single government. Consequently Tas¬ 
mania, Victoria, and Queensland were succes¬ 
sively set off as separate colonies. South 
Australia and West Australia, however, were 
settled as distinct colonies. 

The colonies prospered under their popular 
government, each with its own laws, some hav¬ 
ing free trade, some imposing tariffs on goods 
imported from other colonies. Common in¬ 
terests, however, early awakened a desire for 
union ; and finally, on January 1, 1901, they 
were united to form the Commonwealth of 
Australia. This new commonwealth has a 
government similar to that of Canada, and is 
independent of England in all matters except 
those which affect the British Empire as a 
whole. The population, which equals that of 
the United States when her Constitution was 
adopted, is rapidly growing. 

Nearly all the Australian settlers have 
come from the British Isles, and the unity 
of the race has led to a peaceful growth. As in England, education has 
been encouraged, church schools now being replaced by practically tree, 



Fio. 471. 

Australian savages. The boy 
lias a boomerang in his hand. 





504 


A U STB A LI A 


compulsory education in public schools. There are colleges at the capitals, 
and two important universities. The English love of outdoor sports is fully 
maintained, and great skill is naturally developed in a climate where it is 
possible to practice cricket, football, tennis, and rowing all the year round. 

Sheep Raising. —Although it was gold that brought population 
to Australia, her greatest wealth lies in her flocks of Merino sheep. 
Australian wool is the finest in the world. Sheep were first known 
in Asia, where doubtless they were originally wild animals ; and 


the ancestors of the Merino 
were such as those tended 
by Jacob. Frora Asia the 
breed spread along the 
Mediterranean and found 
in Spain a favorable, dry 
climate. From this point 
flocks were taken to the 
early Dutch colony of 
South Africa and thence to 
Australia. The Merino 
sheep had for centuries 
been carefully tended in 
Europe and separated from 
coarse-wooled varieties; 
and when it was found 
that the climate and natural 
herbage of Australia really 



Fig. 472. 

Density of population in Australia and neighboring 

islands. 


improved the quality of their wool, the English demand for that prod¬ 
uct led to a rapid development of the sheep-raising industry. It has 
now spread to the newly discovered pastures west of the mountains. 

In the early days of Australia the flocks were reared upon the unfenced 
government land, as in western United States (p. 161). The sheep were 
driven to pasture and water, and cared for at night by lonely shepherds, 
much as in the days of David. I>ut now the land is largely fenced with 
wire, each sheep station having its own “run,” or ranch. The largest 
ranches contain fully a hundred thousand sheep, and employ men enough 
to make a little village, with a store, a church, and a school. As in 
Argentina, each run is divided into sections, or “paddocks,” by wire fenc- 
ing, so that the sheep of different ages and conditions may be separated. 
The mildness of the climate makes it unnecessary to provide winter pro¬ 
tection for the animals, and now that the wild dogs have been exterminated, 
the sheep no longer need much care from shepherds. 










AGRICULTURE 


505 


Animal Products. — To-day grazing is the characteristic and 
most important occupation in Australia. There are over a hundred 
million sheep, and fully half the exports consist of wool ; but frozen 
or canned mutton and beef, together with tallow and hides, are also 
sent to England. Horses are bred for export, and cattle and swine 
are raised in large numbers. While the sheep graze in the arid inte¬ 
rior, cattle are more numerous in the districts where there is heavier 
Many cattle, especially near the coast, are raised for dairy 


ram. 


products, and butter is exported to England. At the season when 
the cows of Belgium and Denmark are stalled because of the cold, 
the dairy herds of New South Wales are feeding on fresh pastures. 
Explain the causes of the difference. 

Agriculture. —Since agriculture secures a larger return from the 
soil than grazing, sheep have been driven from the damp lowlands 
and from those portions of the plat¬ 
eaus where the rainfall is sufficient 
for crops. Even in the interior there 
is farming where irrigation is found 
possible. In some cases water is sup¬ 
plied from streams; in others, from 
artesian wells. 

Wheat is the most important crop 
aside from hay, and enough is raised 
to place Australia twelfth among 
lands raising this grain. 

The farm products are distributed 
according to climate. For example, 
while oats and other hardy grains in¬ 
crease southward to Tasmania — since 
cold increases in that direction — corn 
is important only from New South \\ ales 
northward. There are large sugar plant¬ 
ations on the warm coast of Queensland; and in western Australia, where 
there are gold mines in the arid interior, much hay is raised for the animals 
employed at the mines. 

As in our Pacific states, fruits are an important product. They range 
from tropical varieties on the northern coast to oranges and othei weim 
temperate fruits southward, and finally, in the highlands and in Tasmania, 
to the orchard and small fruits of the cool temperate lands. In Victoria 
and South Australia, vineyards for the production of wine are of impor¬ 
tance. Some of this fruit raising is carried on by the aid of irrigation, as 
for instance in the Murray Kiver valley, where the water is supplied by 



Fig. 473. 

The last Tasmanian, a race now en¬ 
tirely extinct. 



AUSTRALIA 


506 

the melting snows of the mountains. In what months would the snows 
melt there ? 

Mining. —The gold of Australia, like that of California, was first 
obtained from the gravels, and mines were later opened along the 
veins in the mountain rocks. Unlike the condition in western United 
States, however, absence of water has prevented hydraulic mining on 
a large scale. Gold mining is still of great importance. New deposits 
are discovered as the country is explored, the recent development of 
western Australia being largely due to such discoveries. 

Copper mining greatly aided in the early development of South Aus¬ 
tralia, and rich copper mines are now worked in Tasmania. Silver and 
tin are other important mineral products. Coal is well distributed and of 
good quality. 

Manufacturing. — Some wool is manufactured into cloth; some leather 
is tanned and made into shoes ; and much flour is made from the wheat. 
There are sawmills and planing mills; and other forms of simple manu¬ 
facturing are carried on. But for the most part the raw products of Aus¬ 
tralia are shipped abroad to be manufactured. Most of these products go 
to England, and the commonwealth depends upon the mother country for 
most of its manufactured articles. Australia is passing from the pastoral 
to the agricultural stage of her development, and the stage of extensive 
manufactures is yet to come. 

Cities.—Australian cities have grown very rapidly, and one 
third of the people live in the capitals of the six colonies. Favored 



Fig. 474. 
Sydney harbor. 










CITIES 


507 


as the seats of government and as seaports, and connected with the 
interior by government railways, these capitals have become the 
leading commercial centers. They are characterized by fine govern¬ 
ment buildings and by abundant provision of parks and gardens 
for the people. Their large suburbs afford homes for the working¬ 
men and save them from the crowded life in tenement houses. 

Melbourne, the largest city in Australia and the capital of 
Victoria, is beautifully situated at the head of a broad harbor. 
Sydney, the capital of New South Wales, founded in 1788, and. 



Fig. 475. 

A view of a part of Sydney. 


therefore, the oldest city of Australia, is noted for its fine harbor 
(Figs. 474 and 475). Both of these cities rank among the great sea¬ 
ports of the British Empire. Adelaide is a third large city. Of 
which division is it the capital? Name the other capitals. 

Since nine tenths of the Australians live on the coast lands, much of 
the commerce is carried on by means of steamboats, and most of the cities 
are seaports connected by rail with the interior farms, mines, and sheep 
country. A few mining centers, like Ballarat and Bendigo in Victoria, 
have become large towns. Ballarat owes its growth partly to its trade as 
the center of a fine farming and grazing country. 













508 


ISLAND GROUPS 


Island Gkoups 

New Zealand. — More than a thousand miles southeast of Australia 
are the two large, mountainous islands of New Zealand. In the 
South Island there are great glaciers among the mountains, while in 
the North Island there are active volcanoes, and also hot springs and 
geysers, like those of the Yellowstone National Park. 

Since these islands lie in the course of the stormy westerlies, 
there is heavy rainfall on the western slopes. Therefore the moun- 



Fig. 476. 

• i 

A view in New Zealand. 


tains are clothed with forests of pine and other trpes, with many 
kinds of ferns and tree-ferns beneath. On the lee or eastern slopes 
the rainfall is less, and the land is covered with wiry grasses. 

In the south the crops are those of the cool temperate belt ; but 
in the north the climate is mild enough for oranges. Can you sug¬ 
gest how ocean currents may influence the temperature of the north 
and south ? (Fig. 267.) What effect must the presence of water on 
all sides have upon the temperature ? 

New Zealand is so distant from other lands that few of the larger 
animals, except birds, have ever reached the islands. The native people, 
or Maoris , who must have come to the islands in boats, were a hardy, 
warlike race, living in protected villages, amidst cultivated fields. Their 
opposition to newcomers delayed settlement by the English until a half- 
century after the founding of Sydney. They are now overpowered, and 







EAST INDIES 


509 


those that survive live mostly in the interior of the North Island. Many 
have so fully adopted civilized ways that they are allowed representatives 
in the legislature. 

As in Australia, pastoral industries take the lead. There are twenty 
million sheep, and frozen mutton and wool are exported to England. 
Cattle are likewise kept, and butter is exported. Agriculture is important, 
especially in the districts of fertile volcanic soils on the North Island ; but 
much land that is suited to farming has never been cleared of forest. 
There are both gold and coal mines among the mountains; and from their 
slopes are obtained valuable timber and a gum used for varnishes. Manu¬ 
facturing is only slightly developed, and is chiefly for home use. 

Although the industries and life of this English colony resemble those 
in Austialia, its interests are so different that they have prevented its 
joining the Australian federation — just as the island colony of New¬ 
foundland has declined to join the Dominion of Canada. The situation 
of these islands in the temperate zone is favorable to rapid progress; the 
vigorous immigrants from the British Isles have developed the resources 
wonderfully, and have established one of the best governments in the 
world. 

Many short lines of railway connect the settled interior with the sea¬ 
ports; roads and stage lines extend to the more distant districts; and 
steamers ply around the coasts and to distant countries. There are four 
prominent cities of nearly the same size, the smallest of which is Wel¬ 
lington, the capital, and the largest, Auckland, about as large as Duluth 
in Minnesota. 

The East Indies. — Between Asia and Australia are hundreds of 
islands, some very large, others so small that they find no place on 
our map. Of these the great majority have animals, plants, and 
people of Asiatic origin. New Guinea, however, which is nearest 
to Australia, bears a resemblance not to Asia but to Australia. it 
is, therefore, usually considered a part of Australasia, while the 
islands to the west and northwest are classed with Asia. 

New Guinea , north of Australia, is one of the largest islands in 
the world, having an area equal to Texas and Pennsylvania com¬ 
bined. Although three times the size of New Zealand, it contains 
a smaller population, composed mainly of savages (Pigs. 477 and 
478). This difference is due to its position in the torrid zone. The 
heavy tropical rainfall has clothed most of its surface with dense 
forests, so that the high mountain ranges and the unhealthful low- 
lands of the interior are almost unknown. 

While the islands farther west are overrun with Malays from Asia, the 
natives of New Guinea resemble the native Australians. The animal life 


510 


ISLAND GROUPS 


also resembles that of Australia, a fact indicating that this island, like 
Australia, has long been separated from Asia. Former connection with 
Australia is further indicated by the fact that the two are now separated 
only by a shallow sea. 

The East Indies proper also have a tropical climate, and are 
clothed with dense forests in which the elephant and rhinoceros, as 
well as other Asiatic animals, are still found. Most of the natives 

are Mohammedan Malays 
from Asia, but some of 
them are pagans. 

The Philippine Islands , 
which belong to the United 
States, are really a north¬ 
ern extension of the East 
Indies. What can you tell 
about them ? 

Many of the other 
islands of this region, 
including Sumatra, Java, 
the Celebes, and a large 
part of Borneo and New 
Guinea, are Dutch colonies. 
What nation controls the 
island of Timor ? To 
which nation does north¬ 
ern Borneo belong ? Bor¬ 
neo, with a greater area 

than all the New England 
and Middle Atlantic states together, is one of the largest islands in 

the world. The immense size of these islands is indicated by the 
fact that Sumatra is larger than California, while Java has a greater 
area than New York State. 



Fig. 477 


Houses in the trees in New Guinea. 


A 1 of the larger islands are mountainous; in fact, they are parts of 
mountain ranges rising out of the sea, and among them are many active 
volcanoes, some of which have had terribly destructive eruptions. There 
aie lowlands near the coasts, and many coral reefs skirting them. Indeed 

a arge number of the smaller islands are merely coral reefs slightly 
elevated above the ocean. & ^ 

Since they are so near the equator, and therefore have a heavy rain¬ 
fall these islands have tropical products. The forests supply valuable 
woods and gums, including gutta-percha and camphor. Large areas 









EAST INDIES 


511 


especially in Java, are highly cultivated and produce quantities of rice, 
sugai cane, and coftee. In the production of the last two articles Java 



11 <». 4 1H. 

A New Guinea village built in the water for protection against enemies. 


is one of the most important regions of the world (Fig. 507). Among 
the noted products of the East Indies are spices, such as pepper, cloves, 


and nutmegs; in fact, one of the island 
What is the other name? There 
are also valuable minerals, including 
tin, gold, and precious stones. 

The Dutch have been remarkably 
successful in managing their East 
Indian colonies, which are a source of 
great wealth; yet the larger islands 
are so mountainous and the forests 
so dense, that great areas are scarcely 
known. The Dutch East Indies are 
fifty times as large as the Nether¬ 
lands and have seven times as many 
inhabitants, or nearly half as many 
as tliQ United States. 

The largest city among these 
islands is Manila, in the Philip¬ 
pines ; the next in size is Bat 
colonial government. 


groups is known as the Spice Islands. 



Fio. 479. 

A native house in the Friendly (Tonga) 
Islands. 


avia, the center of the Dutch 


















512 


ISLAND GROUPS 


Islands of the Pacific. — The map (Fig. 403) shows the western Pacific 
dotted with island groups ; but these islands are so small that, although 
there are many hundreds of them, their combined areas are little more 
than half that of New Zealand. They are the higher peaks of great 
mountain folds rising from the ocean floor. Many of them are volcanoes, 
others submerged peaks upon which corals have grown and formed coral 
islands. 

Although missionaries have converted many of the inhabitants to 
Christianity, others remain savages, and some practice cannibalism. 

There is a marked difference between life on the “ low,” or coral, and 
that on the “ high,” or volcanic, islands. Volcanic islands, like Fiji, the 
peaks of which rise several thousand feet, are heavily forested on their 



Fig. 480. 


A native village in the Fiji Islands. 


iainy, windward slopes; and their fertile soil encourages agriculture, 
riius the coffee plantations of New Caledonia and the sugar plantations 
of Fiji recall the products of the volcanic Hawaiian Islands. As in 

Hawaii, also, bananas and pineapples are raised for home consumption 
and for export. r 

On the low coral islands, on the other hand, the cocoa palm is the main¬ 
stay of human life, supplying food, clothing, shelter, boats, many utensils 
and the means of trade as well. Copra , the. main export from Samoa and 

from many of the Pacific islands, is the dried meat of the cocoanut of 
value for its oil and as food. 





REVIEW QUESTIONS 


513 


„ ,„ , i ( i^r,oss.-Australia. (1) What about its position, area, and 

population (>) Where are the mountains? (3) What resemblance is there 

Am , enca ' ( 4 ) IIow do the streams vary in the several sections? 

(u) What is the nature of the coast? (0) Tell about the Great Barrier Reef. 
CO How does the rainfall vary in the different parts of Australia? Give the 
reasons. (8) What differences in plant life are thus caused? (9) What is the 
influence on industries? (10) Mention some of the ways in which the plants 
are adapted to their surroundings. (11) Tell about the forests. (12) Tell about 
the natives. (13) Give reasons why Australia was not settled earlier. (14) What 

V ?, d rapidsettlernent and development? (15) Tell about the government. 
( >) 1 ell about sheep raising: the Merino sheep; introduction to Australia; de- 

? f the industry 5 care of the shee P- ( 17 ) What a >*e the animal products? 
(lb) 1 ell about farming: water for irrigation; principal products; variation in 
crops according to climate. (19) What mineral products are found? (°0) What 
is the condition of manufacturing? (21) Why are the capitals so important? 

(22) Name and locate the three largest cities; what can you tell about each? 

(23) 4\ hat about other towns? 

Island Groups. (24) fell about New Zealand : its surface features; climate ; 
native animals and people; leading industries; development; cities. (25) Tell 
about New Guinea: size; position; climate; people; animals; resemblance to 
Australia ; resources. (2G) What about the animals, plants, and people of the 
Last Indies? (27) To what nations do the islands belong? (28) What about 
their size ? (29) Tell about their physiography, climate, and products. (30) 

A\ hat about the success of the Dutch in the East Indies and the extent of their 
possessions there? (31) Tell about the small island groups: their names; 
position; origin; government; people; products. 


Comparisons. — (1) Australia resembles South Africa in its surface, climate, 
occupations, and products. State how this is true. (2) Australia also resembles 
western United States in climate, in occupation and products, and in the order of 
development of her resources. Describe these points of resemblance. (3) In 
what respects does southern South America (Chile and Argentina) resemble 
Australia? (4) W1 lat differences are there in climate due to difference in form of 
the two land masses ? (5) What differences in the present condition of develop¬ 

ment, due to the history and the races of each? (0) What part of Australia has 
the same latitude, in the southern hemisphere, that southern Florida has in the 
northern? (7) Which of our states most nearly equals New Zealand in area? 
(8) What peninsula of Europe resembles New Zealand in shape? IIow do the 
two countries compare in area? In population? (9) What advantages over 
Australia has the United States enjoyed in that it has attracted settlers from so many 
different nations? (10) What part of South America most resembles the East 
Indies in climate and products? Make the same comparison for North America. 


Suggestions.— (1) Tf it were within your power, how would you arrange 
the highlands of Australia so as to secure the most even distribution of rain? 
(2) Estimate the greatest length of New Zealand. (3) Estimate the distance 
from Batavia to Manila. (4) Write your impression of the climate of Melbourne 
in January; in July. (5) Through some fruit dealer obtain a cocoanut in its 
husks and examine it. (G) Read Whittier’s poem on the Palm Tree. (7) Learn 
something about the work of missionaries in the small Pacific islands. (8) Col¬ 
lect pictures for the school, showing the islands and their life. (9) By what routes 
can one go from New York City to Australia? Through what waters? Which 


514 


SUGGESTIONS 


would be the shortest? About how many miles? (10) Answer the same ques¬ 
tions for a voyage from New York to Manila. (11) Read in Tarr’s “ Elementary 
Geology (pp. 251-256) about the origin of atolls. (12) Read about the eruption 
of Ivrakatoa (same book, p. 343) in the Sunda Strait, near Batavia. 

For References, see Teacher's Book. 



Fig. FF. 

A Native Kanaka Girl in Holiday Dress, Hawaiian Islands. 


$ 








TIIE UNITED 


STATES COMPARED WITH OTHER 
COUNTRIES 


Area and Population. — In spite of the vast extent of the United 
States, there are three empires in the Old World with a greater 



Area of the five largest nations. 

area. Which are they? (Fig. 481.) Which country is fifth 
in size? Compare the United States with each of these in area. 

The United States also ranks fourth in population (Fig. 488). 
Name the five most 
populous countries in 
the order of their rank. 

What facts do you 
discover by compar¬ 
ing Figures 481 and 
482? Figure 482 
shows the density of 
population , or the num¬ 
ber of people per square 
mile, in some of the 
countries in the world. 

From this it will be 
seen that the United 
States is very thinly 
settled, compared 
with many countries. 

Compare the United States in this regard with Belgium, England, 
Cuba, Mexico, and Canada. 



35—A o 


515 


































































































































































1. United States* ' v j 

2. Russia. 3. France 
1. India. 

5. Austria Hungary. 

6. Germany. 7. Ital 
8. Argentina. 9. Spj 

10. British Isles. *11. 1 
12. Australasia. 


SOUTH 


PRINCIPAL WHEAT 
PRODUCING REGIONS 

LESS IMPORTANT W 
PRODUCING REGIONS. 


A SILICA 


Sketch map to show the approximate distribution of corn. 

329.) Wheat is more widely cultivated tlian corn (Fig. 485). Yet 
we are far in the lead in that grain (Fig. 486). Point out (Fig. 485) 
the leading wheat fields of the world. Which sections are important 


Fig. 485. 

Approximate distribution of wheat. 


COMPARISON OF COUNTRIES 


Leading Raw Products. — Nevertheless, the United States leads the 
woild in many very important respects and approaches leadership in 


435,553,030 

^j||f 





392,211,617 

1 in ' iv\ 



149,299,300 


84,216,433[60,641,278 

_I-1 


Fig. 483. 

The five most populous nations, 1906. 

several others. Figure 484 shows that no nation is a close rival to 
us in the production of corn. What countries, however, raise large 
quantities of it ? Why is no corn raised in the British Isles ? (p. 










































































COMPARISON OF COUNTRIES 517 


for both wheat and corn ? On which side of the Atlantic is wheat 
raised farthest north ? Why ? 

Cotton is limited to warm climates (Fig. 487), so that compara- 


I/n ttcd State v Ftusslnn 



F'mnce Urtt tst\s 
India 


324,725,000 


319,586,000 


Austria, 

Jlungary 


255,663,000 


Fig. 4<86. 


The five leading wheat-producing countries, liXXJ. 


tively few countries raise it. Name the five that lead in its pro¬ 
duction (Fig. 488). To what extent does the output of the United 
States surpass that of the four other countries together? In what parts 



Approximate distribution of cotton. 


of the United States is most cotton manufacturing carried on ? What 
other countries have important cotton-manufacturing industries ? 

Note the distribution of sheep and cattle (Fig. 489). What is our 
rank in the production of wool? (Fig. 490.) Yet we consume much 

more than we raise. Recall 

United Stares India 3.926,400 

Ctxirxa 1,320,000 
India 


13,550,766 
Hales qfJOOlbz 



Cfunafjjypt 


Korea 


Egypt 1,322,973 

Korea 200,400 
Fig. 4H8. 

The five leading cotton-producing countries, 1007 


some facts concerning sheep 
raising in Australia, Argen¬ 
tina, and the United States. 
What nations have impor¬ 
tant woolen manufacturing ? 

The extreme importance 
of coal and iron for manu¬ 
facturing purposes has often 


























































518 


COMPARISON' OF COUNTRIES 


been emphasized. But Figure 491 represents the coal fields as very 
limited. What countries have little or none ? Name the leading 



m 


coal-producing sections, and state the rank of the United States 
this mineral (Fig. 492). 

Is iron ore more or less widely distributed than coal ? (Fig. 493 .) 

Australasia 

Argentina 




/two o ru 

United Sts. 

United 




Kingdom 

370,000,000 

361,100,000 

235,488,438 

133,124,762 


Fig. 490. 

The five leading wool-producing countries, 1904-5, 

How does the United States rank in the output of this mineral (Fig. 
493) ; also in the production of pig iron (Fig. 494), which demands 






































































































COMPARISON OF COUNTRIES 


519 


coal as well as iron ore ? How does the output of coal and iron 
correspond to the importance of countries as manufacturing nations? 
(Fig. 500.) 


United Starrs creed Britain 


375.397,204 

lories 

251,050,809 




Germany 


193,533,259 


Austrit 

Hangar 

l 

v France 


• 


Aiust. //ung. 4o,85o.ooo 
tt'tmce 34,313,645 


Fig. 492. 


The five leading coal-producing countries, 190(5. 




Where are the principal s/Zyyr-mining sections ? (Fig. 495.) And 
how do we compare with other countries in this product ? (Fig. 496.) 



Notice to what extent the world is indebted to the New World for 
silver. Tell about the distribution of gold (Fig. 497), and give our 


Un ItrdStofr.i 



Germany U’t’d Kingdom 


12,478,067 


10,210,178 


Fig. 494. 


F?nncc 

3,319,032 


2,350,000 

■ 


The five leading countries in the production of pig iron, 190(3. 


rank in the production of that metal (Fig. 498). How does the 
value of the total gold production compare with that of silver in the 
five leading regions for each? 






















































520 


COMPARISON OF COUNTRIES 


The United States leads the world in the production of petroleum, 
or mineral oil, the second most important district being in Russia 
near the Caspian Sea. Other districts produce little petroleum. 



Approximate distribution of silver mining. 


Manufacturing and Commerce. — According to Figure 499, on what 
two continents is there the greatest development of manufacturing f 



The five leading silver-producing countries, 1906. 

What other smaller sections are active in this industry ? Consider¬ 
ing the abundance of our raw materials and the energy and intelli- 


































































































COMPARISON OF COUNTRIES 


521 


gence of our people, it is not surprising that we surpass all other 
countries in such work (Fig. 500). State the rank of other leading 
nations in this occupation. 


Cape of Good Hope United States Australia 


119,116,603 



Russia 

Canada. 


94,373,800 

82,391,400 

19,494,700 

12,023,900 






• 




Fig. 408. 


• The live leading gold-producing countries, 1006. 

Ill provision for transportation by rail the United States also takes 
the leading place. It has by far the greatest number of miles of 
railway of any nation (Fig. 501), though several small European 



Fig. 4W. 

Approximate distribution of manufacturing. 


countries have a greater development of railways in 
their area. The United States ranks second in 


proportion to 
provision for 


United States 



Ct. Britain 


6,000 


Germany 

France Russia 

4,600 

3,460 

1,888 




Fig. 500. 

The five leading manufacturing countries, 1900. 


transportation by water (Fig. 502). State the rank of the live chief 
countries in total length of railways, and in merchant marine. 















































522 


COMPARISON OF COUNTRIES 


(rive reasons why the United Kingdom should lead in merchant 
marine (p. 843). Why should Norway be of importance in this 

respect? (p. 376.) 

ITn ITnsf o 1 *- s 



The five countries having the greatest length of railways, 1906. 


All these facts 
prepare us for Fig¬ 
ure 503, which shows 
that t h e United 
States is the wealth¬ 
iest nation on the 
face of the earth. 
Compare our wealth 
with that of other 


leading countries. In how many and in what respects have our prod 
nets and industries been shown to lead all nations of the world ? 

Dependence upon Other Nations.—Altogether the United States 
may be considered a wonderfully favored and independent nation, 
since it has such 

United Kingdom 

UnltedStates 


a wealth of raw 
products, a n d 
such an extensive 
development of 
manufacturing. 
We, probably, bet¬ 
ter than any other 
nation, could de¬ 
pend upon ou 1 



6,674,969 

3,932,109 

1,902,966 

768,688 









Nether¬ 
lands 


Fig. 502. 

ilie five countries having the largest merchant marine, 1906. 1 

selves alone for all that we need, if occasion should arise. Yet so 
closely i elated are the nations of the world that, if war arises be¬ 
tween two of them, our industries and markets are affected. This 
is due laigely to the fact that we produce far more than we need of 
ceitain commodities, as wheat, cotton, meat, and iron, for which a 

Unite d. States ^ ^ 

Fran ce 


116,000 million 


Dollar i 



Gt. Britain 


62,220 


42,800 


Germany Russta 


42,000 


35,000 


Fig. 503. 

The five wealthiest nations, 1907. 

1 Tonnage of United States in 1907, 6,938,794. 






















































COMPARISON OF COUNTRIES 


523 


market must be found abroad. These we export. But it is also 
due to the fact that we are partly or wholly dependent upon foreign 
countries for certain other articles. These we import. 

For example, Figure 504 shows that coffee is not grown within 
our states, although it is daily consumed in almost every household. 



Fio. £>04. 

Approximate distribution of coffee. 


lira rll 


Notice, however, that it is produced in Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Phil¬ 
ippine Islands (Fig. 504). To what climate and countries is it con- 
lined? State the rank of the principal coffee-producing sections and 
compare their output (Fig. 505). 

Note the beet sugar and cane sugar areas (Fig. 500). What 
difference do you detect in the situation of the countries producing 
these two kinds of sugar? Also note the rank of the leading 

countries which manufacture 
cane sugar (Fig. 507). Our own 
states produce far less sugar each 
year than we consume. Of what 
importance, therefore, in this re¬ 
spect is our newly established 
relation to Cuba and the Hawai¬ 
ian and Philippine Islands? 

We depend wholly on foreign 
nations for raw silk. Name the 
chief silk-producing countries 
(Fig. 508). What have you learned about the production of silk l 
Our tea also comes almost entirely from abroad, mainly from eastern 
and southern Asia. From what region mainly ? And while much 
rice is produced in our Southern States (fig. 509), a large amount 
has to be imported. From what sources must it be obtained ? W e 
have, therefore, a very extensive trade in imports as well as in exports. 



Exports from t lie five leading coffee-produc¬ 
ing sections, 1000. 



























524 


COMPARISON OF COUNTRIES 


y 

Exports and Imports. Our ten leading exports, named in order 

ol value, together with the principal countries to which the goods 
are sent, are as follows: — 


Articles 

1. Cotton (mainly unmanufactured) 

2. Breadstuffs (wheat, corn, flour, etc.) 

3. Meat and dairy products 

4. Iron and steel, and manufactures of 

5. Mineral oils 

6. Copper (mainly manufactures of) 

7. Wood, and manufactures of 

8. Animals (mainly cattle) 

9. Tobacco 


Value in 1907 

$513,582,209 

168,322,502 

102,392,508 

181,530,871 

84,855,715 

96,600,698 

83,349,575 

41,203,080 

39,113,011 


10. Leather, and manufactures of 
Total value of exports 


45,476,969 

$1,988,989,337 


Principal Countries to which they 
are sent 

Gt. Britain, Germany, France, 
Japan. 

Gt. Britain, Germany, Netherlands, 
Belgium. 

Gt. Britain, Germany, France, Bel¬ 
gium. 

Gt. Britain, Canada, Germany, 
Mexico. J 

Gt. Britain, Germany, Netherlands, 
Belgium. 

Gt. Britain, Netherlands, France, 
Germany. 

Gt. Britain, Canada, Germany 

^ W. Indies. 

Gt. Britain. 

Gt. Britain, Germany, Italy, 
France. 

Gt. Britain, Australasia, Canada. 


The ten leading imports, on the other hand, are as follows: — 


Articles 

1. Sugar and molasses 

2. Silk, and manufactures of 

3. Hides and skins 

4. Fiber, and manufactures of 

5. Chemicals, drugs, etc. 

6. Coffee 

7. Cotton (mainly manufactures of) 

8. Wool, and manufactures of 

9. Rubber and rubber goods 

10. Fruits and nuts 

Total value of imports 


Value in 1907 

$92,806,253 

110,065,150 

83,206,545 

109,661,816 

82,997,914 

78,231,902 

93,635,265 

63,855,626 

70,206,418 

35,807,527 

$1,591,878,298 


Principal Countries from which they 
come 

E. Indies, Hawaiian Isds., Cuba, 
Germany (beet sugar). 

Japan, France, China, Italy. 

E. Indies, S. America, Gt. Britain, 
1 ranee. 

Mexico, Philippines, E. Indies 
Germany, E. Indies, Gt. Britain. 
Brazil, Cent. America, E. Indies 
Mexico. 

Gt. Britain, Germany, Switzerland, 
r ranee. 

Gt. Britain, Germany, France, S. 
America. 

Brazil, Gt. Britain. 

Italy, Cent. America, W. Indies. 


In Figure 510 trace the main steamship lines of the world by 
winch these goods are carried. Compare the value and nature of 
0111 exports and imports. How is the result encouraging' ? 

More than one-third of all our foreign trade is with the British 
Isles, the ten leading countries ranking as follows: — 


-The J en Leading Countries with which we Trade 


Countries 
1. British Isles 


Value in 1907 
Exp. $607,783,255 
Imp. 246,112,047 
Total 853,895,302 


Kinds of Goods 

Provisions, breadstuffs, raw cotton. 

,oJP 0d8 ’ ra ' V W001 ’ jewelry. 


rubber 



produced 


Temperate 


*. A 
• 

1. Cuba 2. Java 

3. I’niltd State* 

4. Hawaiian la 

5. Philippine* 


Cane 


'raised throwjKnut t, 


BEET SUGAR 


MERICA 


CANE SUGAR 


Australia; I 


Fig. 50l>. 


Distribution of sugar cane and beet sugar. 



Cuba 


Ja va. 


1,011,546 


United Sts ,• $ 

DA.,/ T . 

390,000 

233,171 

J i'll C i • A W* 

75,000 




Fig. 507. 

The five countries producing most cane sugar, 1906-7. 


CHtrxci 



France 


In ti l ci OGl/L OO 


Fig. 508. 

The five leading raw-silk-producing countries, 1899. 



LESS important RiC€ 
PROOUCINo REGIONS. 


PRINCIPAL RICE 
PR00UCING REGIONS. 


Fig. 509. 

Approximate distribution of rice. 


















































































































































































































COMPARISON OF COUNTRIES 


525 


Countries 


Value in 1907 


Kinds of Goods 


2. Germany 

3. France 

4. Canada 

5. Netherlands 

6. West Indies 

7. East Indies 

8. Brazil 

9. Mexico 
10. Japan 


( Exp. 5250.0.-,3.000 
< Imp. 1(51,544,552 
( Total 418,197,012 

( Exp. 23.384 989 

! Imp. 1.125.945 

( Total 24,510,9:54 

I Exp. 97.807 

; Imp. 175.862 

( 1'otal 273,009 


| Exp. 

Imp. 

( Total 

( Exp. 

; Imp. 

( Total 

l Exp. 

- Imp. 

( Total 

f Exp. 

■j Imp. 

( Total 

( Exp. 

< Imp. 

( Total 

f Exp. 

•< Imp. 

( Total 


104.450,319 

32.454.016 

1:30,904.935 

68,397,077 

115.117,004 

183,514.141 

11,394,028 

95.220.808 

100.015,430 

18.097,547 

97,881.158 

116.578,705 

00.248.098 

57,233,410 

123,481,514 

38 770.000 
08.910,594 
107,080,(554 


Raw cotton, breadstuffs, provisions. 

13eet sugar, chemicals and drugs, cotton goods, 
silk goods. 

Raw cotton, copper mineral oil. 

Silk goods, hides, jewelry, cotton goods. 

Coal, breadstuITs, cotton and manufactures of. 
Lumber, coal, hides. 

BreadstuITs, provisions, copper, mineral oil. 
Jewelry, tin. 

Provisions, breadstuff's, animals. 

Sugar, fruits, cocoa. 

Mineral oil. cotton goods. 

Sugar, hides, tin. 

BreadstuITs, mineral oil, provisions. 

Coffee, rubber, sugar. 

Coal, cotton goods, iron and steel manufactures. 
Sisal grass, coffee, lead, hides. 

Manufactured cotton, mineral oil, iron and steel 
manufactures. 

Silk, tea. 


Name some of the countries which probably have the same exports as 
the United States, and which are, therefore, likely to be active rivals to 
us in supplying foreign markets. 

Owing to our trade relations with the United Kingdom, what hard¬ 
ships would probably be brought upon the British if they entered upon a 
war with us? IIow might the Germans suffer if they were at war with 
us? How might the French suffer? On the other hand, what hardships 
would come to us in each case ? Are we more or less independent than 
these countries in case of war ? Why ? 


Reasons for the Rank of the United States.—The preceding fig¬ 
ures and diagrams show that several European countries are the 
chief competitors with the United States in the world's trade. Give 
examples. Hut so’far as the future is concerned, several important 
facts are in our favor. In the first place, we are still in our youth 
as a people, while some of the leading nations of Europe have per¬ 
haps already reached the zenith of their power. In the second place, 
the territory of most of those countries is densely populated, as 
shown in Figure 482. Note the number of inhabitants per square 
mile in Belgium, Germany, and France. When we contrast with 
these figures our average of only twenty-eight persons per square 
mile, the possibility of our future growth seems almost without limit. 
Immense tracts of land, which in Europe would be carefully tilled. 


I 



Fig. 511 





























































































































526 


COMPARISON OF COUNTRIES 


are in our country not even cleared for pasture; and in no large 
section of the United States do we even approach the careful hand 
tillage of Belgium and some other European countries. 

Another point in our favor is the varied climate and physiog¬ 
raphy of our vast country, encouraging varied products. Almost 
all farm products can be easily raised, and our wonderful mineral 
resources are apparently not equalled on any continent. It will 
therefore be seen that our natural resources, which have made 
present development possible, promise equally well for the future. 

Our people are another element to be considered in reckoning 
past success and future promise. They have consisted, in large part, 
of those who had energy and ambition enough to migrate to a new 
land in the hope of bettering their condition. In their new home 
the possibilities have been so great that they have been encouraged 
to work and to improve themselves. As the environment of the 
desert has given rise to the nomad, and the ease of life in the tropi¬ 
cal forest to the degenerate savage, so the environment in the United 
States has given rise to a race noted for its energy and enterprise. 
This race has been possible, however, largely by reason of the fact 
that it comes from a mixture of peoples already gifted. That re¬ 
sources alone will not make an energetic people and a great nation 
is well illustrated in China, where nature favors, but racial charac¬ 
teristics and customs are opposed to, development. 

Nor would the statement of reasons for the present position of 
the United States and her future prospects be complete if left here. 
There are two other elements of high importance ; namely, educa¬ 
tion and government. Where people are hampered by ignorance, 
petty restrictions, and heavy taxes, unnecessarily imposed upon them 
by their rulers, they have little opportunity for progress. It is those 
European countries in which there are the best opportunities for 
education and the greatest freedom, that have made the greatest 
progress. And no nation in the world pays more attention to edu¬ 
cation, or guarantees its people a more active part in their entire 
government, than the United States. 


INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 


+0+ 


KEY TO PRONUNCIATION 

a, as in fat; a, as in fate ; d, as in far; a , as in fall; d, as in last; U, as in care; 
<i, as in senate, e , as in pen,' e, as in mete; 7 , as in her; e , as in event; i, as in pin ; 
l, as in pine, o , as in not; o , as in note; o, as in for; u, as in tub; u , as in mute; 
u, as in furl, u , as in pull; oo, as in food; no, as in foot; oi , as in oil; 010, as in 
cow; g, as in get; g, as in gem ; c, as in cat; c, as in cent; n, as in bank; s, as in wise. 

A, e, i, o, and 11 marked thus: a, e, i, o, u, indicate a sound obscured or slurred. 

The sign ' tells upon which syllable the accent is placed. The numbers refer to 
pages in the book, except where Fig. is before them, when they refer to figures in the 


book. 

Aachen (a'-ken), 396, 402. 

Ab'-er-deen', 330, 342. 

Ab'-ys-sin'-i-a, 472, 495. 

Ab-ys-sin-i-an Mountains, 483. 
A-ca-puF-co (pool), 212. 

A-con-ca'-gua (gwa), 286. 

A-crop'-O-lis, 434, Fig. 401. 

Ad'-e-laide, 507. 

Ad-i-ron'-dacks, 72. 

Ad-ri-at'-ic, 419, 422, 424, 428, 429. 
Aegean (e-je'-an) Sea, 428. 
Af-g/ian-is-tan', 449. 

Af'-ri-ca, 343, 363, 398, 439, 442, 447, 452, 
460, 472-498. 

A-ga'-ve, 209. 

Agriculture, 57, 73, 101, 121, 157, 181, 
197, 208, 328, 347, 356, 366, 374, 

386, 395, 407, 412, 424, 462, 463, 484, 
490. 

Aix-la-Chapelle (aks-la-sha-peP), 402. 
Al-a-bii'-ma, 67, 98, 101, 108, 109. 
A-las'-ka, 177-180, 266, Figs. F, O, T. 
Al'-ba-ny, 71, 82, 84, 85. 

Al-bSrt'-a, 192, 197. 

Albiiquenpie (al-boo-kar'-kS), 164. 
AP-der-ney, 328. 

Aleutian (A-lu'-shi-an) Islands, 178. 
Al-ex-an'-dri-a, 486. 

Al-ge'-ri-a, 363, 479, 487, 488. 


Al-giers' (jerz), 488. 

Al-ham'-bra, 368. 

Allegheny (al'-e-ga-ni), 76, 82, 193. 
Alpaca, 290, 808. 

Alps, 318, 355, 393, 405, 412, 421, Figs. 
.. V ’ Y - 

Al-sace' (sits) Lor-ratne', 392. 

Al-tbb'-na, 82. 

Al-va-ra'-do, 161. 

Am'-a-zon, 286, 288, 293, 214, 295, 296, 
806, 476. 

A-mir' (mer), 449. 

AnP-ster-dam, 350, Fig. 332. 

An'-des (dez), 286. 287, 288, 302, 305, 
306, 307, Fig. U. 

An-tlor'-ni, ,>>) 0 , 3(>5. 

An-dros-cog'-gin, 52. 

Angles (ang'-glz), 327- 
Anglo-Saxon (ang'-glO-sak'-sqn), 327. 
Animals, 20-29, 289-290. 

Animals of North America, 21-29. 
An-nap'-o-lis, 94. 

Ann Ar'-bpr, 140. 

Antarctic (an-tiirk'-tik) Circle, 44. 
Anthracite coal, 4, 77, 819. 

An-tiP-les (lez), 214. 

Anti-trade winds, 246. 

Ant'-werp, 353, 354, 358. 

Apia (a'-pe-ii), 186. 


527 




528 


INDEX 


Ap-pa-la'-chi-an Mountains, 5, 07, 70, 98. 
Ap-pa-la'-chi-an Plateau, 70. 
Ap'-pen-nines (ninz), 412, 414, 410. 
A-ra'-bi-a, 442, 447-448. 

Ar'-al Sea, 083. 

Ar'-a-rat, 444. 

Archangel (ark-an'-gel), 382. 
Ar-c/ii-pel'-a-go, 180, 434. 

Arc'-tic Circle, 44, 439, 441. 

Arc'-tic Ocean, 385. 

A-re-qui'-pa (ra-ke), 308. 

Ar-gen-ti'-na (te), 280, 296-299,301, 358. 
Ar-i-zo'-na, 149, 150, 151, 155, 103, 104. 
Ar'-kan-sas (sa), 100, 110. 

Ar-me'-ni-ans, 445. 

As^en'-sion (shun) Island, 498. 
Ashe'-ville, 100. 

Ash'-land, 133. 

Asia (a'-shi-a), 439-470, 472, 484, 485. 
Asia Minor, 444, 452. 

Asphaltum, 311. 

As-sin-i-boi'-a, 197. 

As-to'-ri-a, 172. 

Asuncion (a-sbon-se-on'), 300. 
A-ta-ca'-ma Desert, 289. 

Ath'-en§, 382, 434. 

At-lan'-ta, 101, 109, 110, 113. 

At-lan'-tic Ocean, 18, 98, 177, 193, 217, 
251, 203, 205, 266, 207, 272, 300, 309. 
At'-las Mountains, 472, 480, 487. 

Auburn (a'-burn), Me., 00. 

Auburn (a'-burn), N.Y., 75, 82. 
Awck'-land, 509. 

Aw-gus'-ta, Ga., 110. 

Aw-gus'-ta, Me., 52, 00. 

Ai^s'-tin, 114. 

Australasia (as'-tral-a'-slii-a), 500-509. 
A?<s-tra'-li-a, 343, 358, 400, 478, 500-507. 
Aws'-tri-a, 391, 402, 421-426. 

Aws'-tri-a Hun'-ga-ry, 421-426. 

A-zores' (zorz) Islands, 370. 

Az'-tecs, 31, 32, 207, 208. 

Bab'-y-lon, 446. 

Bag-dad', 447. 

Ba-ha'-mas, 216. 

Bahia (ba-e'-a), 296. 

Bui -kal, 450. 

Ba-ku' (koo), 386. 

Balearic Isles, 309. 


Bal-kan' Mountains, 430. 

Bal-kan' Peninsula, 428-434. 

Bal-la-rat', 507. 

Bal'-tic Sea, 319, 374, 380, 382, 394, 421. 
Bal'-ti-more, 72, 75, 82. 

Ba-lu-chis-tan' (lob), 451, 450. 

Bananas, 99, 182, 188, 213, 215, 301, 490, 
512, Fig. 202. 

Bang-kok', 459. 

Ban'-gor, 52, 72. 

Bar'-ba-ry States, 479, 487-488, 
Bar-^e-lo'-na, 369. 

Bar Har'-bor, 64, Fig. 55. 

Barley, 126^ 157, 198. 

Bar'-men, 402. 

Barrens, 21. 

Ba'gel, 408. 

Ba-ta'-vi-a, 511. 

Bath, Me., 52. 

Ba-va'-ri-a, 402. 

Bay City, 131. 

Beet sugar, 101, 397, 425. 

Bel'-fast (or fast), 336, 342. 

Bel'-gi-um, 318, 348, 350-354, 390, 497. 
Bel-grade', 430. 

Belize (bel-ez'), 213. 

Belt of Calms, 247, 248, 441, Figs. 2^7, 
249. 

Ben-a'-res, 458. 

Ben'-di-go, 507. 

Ben Nev'-is, 327. 

Bef'-berg, 479, 487. 

Berg'-en, 377. . 

Be'-ring Sea, 178. 

Be'-ring Straits, 178, 439. 

Berkeley (berk'-le), 170, Fig. 125 a. 
Berk'-shire Hills, 49, 64. 

Ber'-lin, 399-400, 403, 426. 

Ber-mu'-das, 217. 

Berne, 409. 

Betli'-le-hem, 445, Fig. 415. 
Bet-ter-ra'-via, 161. 

Bey (ba), 487. 

Bhutan (bhbo-tan'), 457. 

Bid'-de-ford, 00. 

Bil'-ling§, 161, 163, Fig. 147. 

Bing'-/lain-ton, 82. 

Bir'-ming-ham (ber), Ala., 108. 
Bir'-ming-ham (um), Eng., 333, 336. 
Bituminous coal, 4, 70, 132, 318. 



INDEX 


529 


Black Race, 270, 478. 

Black Sea, 882, 388, 420, 431, 444, 451. 
Blast furnace, 81, Figs. 72, 73. 

Blizzards, 125. 

Bluefields, 214. 

Boer?, 488, 480. 

Bd-gd-ta', 304. 

Bok-Aa'-ra, 449. 

Bo-liv'-i-a, 291, 302, 308-309. 

Bom-bay', 457, 458. 

Boom'-e-rang, 503, Fig. 471. 

Bor-deaux' (dd), 302. 

Bor'ne-d, 510. 

Boj'-ni-a, 420, 429. 

Bos'-po-rus, 429, 431. 

Bds'-ton, 55, 00, 62-63, 201. 

Brad'-ford, 333, 330. 

Bra/i'-min-i?m, 281. 

Bra/i-ma-pu'-tra (pod), 451. 

Bra-zil', 287, 288, 291, 292-296. 

Brazilian Highland, 287. 

Brem'-en, 390, 401. 

Bres'-lau (lou), 397, 399. 

Bricks, 83, 135. 

Bridge'-pdrt, 62. 

Brindisi (bren'-dd-se), 411. 

Bris'-tpl, 330, 840. 

Brit'-ish Af'-ri-ca, 488-493, 495. 

Brit'-ish Cd-lum'-bi-a, 192, 197, 199. 
Brit'ish Em'pire, 333, 339, 342, 455. 
Brit'ish Guiana (ge-a'-na), 300. 

Brit'ish Ilon-du'-ras (doo), 213. 

Brit'-ish Isles (ilg), 320, 326-344. 373, 
374, 370, 377, 400. 

Brit'-ish Straits Settlements, 459, 400. 
Brock'-ton, 01, 138. 

Brook'-lyn, 83, 87. 

Brunswick, Ga., 101. 

Brus'-sel?, 354. 

Bucharest (bu-ka-rest'), 431. 

Bu'-da-pest (boo), 420. 

Buddhism (bdb'-dism), 281, 282, 459. 
Buenos Aires (bd'-nus a'-riz), 298, 299. 
Buf'-fa-ld, 78, 81, 84, 85, 134, 137. 
Bul-ga'-ri-a, 428, 429, 430. 

Bullfrog, 153. 

Bun'-des-ratA (boon), 391. 

Bur'-ling-tyn, 02. 

Bur'-mii, 450. 

Butte (but), 154, 155. 


Cad'-iz, 308. 

Cai'r'-o, 481, 483, 485, 480. 

Cal-cut'-ta, 457. 

Cal'-ga-ry, 197. 

Cal-i-fdr'-ni-a, 30, 147, 148, 149, 150, 157, 
100, 101, 109, 170, 171, 172, Figs. B, 
C, N. 

California, U.S.S., 171. 

Cal-la'-o, 307, 311. 

Cal'-u-inet, 134. 

C&m'-bridge, Eng., 340. 

Cam'-bri dge, Mass., 63. 

Cam'-den, 82, 92, 93. 

Cam'-pos, 288. 

Can'-a-da, 192-202, 343. 

Canals, 120, 304. 

Ca-na'-ry Islands, 309, 498. 

Can'- 9 dr, Tropic of, 242, 271, 401. 
Canning fruit, 75, 100. 

Can-ta'-bri-an Mountains, 305, 307. 
Can'-tgn, 401, 405. 

Caoutchouc (kdo'-chuk), 294. 

Cape Breton (bret'-on) Island, 109. 

Cape Col'-d-ny, 488, 489, 491, 492. 

Cape of Good Hope, 478, 497. 

Cape Town, 485, 492. 

Cape Verde Islands, 370, 498. 

Cap'-ri-corn, Tropic of, 242, 287. 
Ca-ra'-cas, 301, 302. 

Caravan, 480, 481. 

Car'-diff, 340. 

Car-ib-be'-an Sea, 207, 214. 

C&r-p&'-thi-an Mountains, 421. 

Cas-cade' Ranges, 149. 

Cas'-pi-an Sea, 332, 383, 380, 448, 450, 
451. 

Cas'-sel-ton, 125. 

Cats'-kill?, 73. 

Cattle ranching, 126, 101, 197, 208, 297. 
CftM-ca'-sian (shun) race, 277, 278. 
Ca?d-ca-sus, 318, 383, 386. 

Cave dwellings, Fig. 149. 

Caverns, 123. 

Cayuga (ka-ydb'-ga) Lake, 89. 

Qel'-e-be?, 510. 

Qen'-tral A-meF-i-ca, 212-214. 

Qen'-tral States, 119-144. 

Century plant, 209. 

Qdy-lon', 451, 458. 

Cham-plilin' (sham) Lake, 02. 



530 


INDEX 


Channel Islands, 328. 

Charleston, S.C., 101, 104, 108. 

Charlotte (sliar'-lot), 110. 

Charlottetown, 198. 

Chat-ta-noo'-ga, 108, 109, 110. 
Chautauqua (sha-ta'-kwa) Grape Belt, 75. 
Chel'-sea, (si), 63. 

Chem'-nitz (nits), 397. 

Ches'-a-peake Bay, 16, 72. 

Ches'-ter, 92. 

Cheyenne (shi-en'), 159. 

Chi-ca'-go (she), 84, 106, 111, 129, 131, 
137-139, 140, 141. 

Chile (chil'-i), 253, 288, 289, 308, 309-311. 
Chim-bo-ra'-zo, 305. 

Cln'-na, 187, 359, 441, 452, 460-466. 
Chl-nese' (nez) Empire, 460-466. 

Chino (che'-no), 161. 

Chris-ti-a'-ni-a, 377. 

Christian Religion, 281. 

Cin-c/io'-na (chin), 307. 

Qin-gin-na'-ti, 126, 135, 143. 

Circle City, 180. 

Cities, occupations of, 226-231. 

Clays, 83-135. 

Cleve'-land, 84, 134, 140. 

Cliff dwellings, Fig. 149. 

Climate, 49, 71, 99, 119, 150, 177, 180, 
184, 187, 193, 206, 213, 287, 292, 296. 
Clyde, Fig. 319. 

Coal, 2, 76, 108, 132, 155, 189, 199, 225, 
296, Figs. 220, 221. 

Coal Period, 2, 319. 

Coastal Plains, 67, 98. 

Coastal Ranges, 149. 

Co'-coa, 189, 213, 296, 300, 301, 303, 301 
305. 

Cocoanuts, 99, 106, 182, 188, 189, 216, 459. 
Cod, 56, 178, 195. 

Coffee, 181, 184, 189, 209, 213, 295, 296, 
298, 300, 301, 303, 304, 305, 306, 308, 
447, 458, 490, 497, 511, 512, Figs. 200, 
203. 

Cold Pole, 441. 

Colleges, 63, 89, 93, 114, 139, 140, 170. 
Co-logne', 392, 397, 401, 402. 

Co-Ion', 214. 

Co-lom'-bi-a (lom), 302, 303, 304-305. 
Col-o-ra'-do, 149, 154, 155, 159, 169, 208, 
390, Fig. L. 


Col-o-ra'-do Can'-yon, 165, Fig. L. 
Col-o-ra'-do Plateau, 149, 152. 
Col-o-ra'-do Springs, 169. 

Col-os-se'-um, 417, Fig. 386. 

Co-lum'-bi-a, District of, 94. 

Co-lum'-bi-a, S.C., 110. 

Co-lum'-bi-a Plateau, 149. 

Co-lum'-bus, Ga., 110. 

Columbus, Ohio, 143. 

Commerce, 229,230, 343, 362, 387,401,425. 
Commons, House of, 344. 

Comstock Lode, 153. 

Concord (kong'-kord), N.I1., 54. 
Con-nect'-i-cut, 62. 

Con-nect'-i-cut River, 62. 
Con-stan-ti-no'-ple, 388, 426, 431, 444. 
Continental climate, 441. 

Co-pen-ha/ -gen, 380. 

Copper, 134, 135, 152, 154, 155, 181. 

Coral islands, 99, 216. 

Coral reefs, 501, 510. 

Cor'-cor-an, 161. 

Cor-dil-ler'-as (ya'-ra§), 5 . 

Cor'-do-ba, 299. 

Corn, 29, 31, 107, 124-125, 198, 208. 
Cos'-sacks, 386, 442. 

Cos'-ta Ri'-ca (re), 213. 

Co-to-pax'-i, 305. 

Cotton, 102-104, 114, 209, 213, 214, 223, 
300, 306, 307, 367, 386, 413, 448, 459, 
484, 488, Figs. 93, 94, 95. 

Co.tton gin, 110. 

Cotton manufacturing, 60, 109, 110. 
Coun'-gil Bluffs, 142. 

Country, occupations of, 222-226. 

Crete, 434. 

Crip'-ple Creek, 154. 

Cu'-ba, 105, 180-184. 

Cuzco (coos'-co), 308. 

Cyclonic storms, 257-259, 321. 

Czar (zar), 385. 

Dairying, 73-74, 379, 505. 

Dal'-las, 114. 

Da-mas'-cus, 446. 

Dan'-ube, 402, 403, 421, 426, 428, 429, 430. 
Dan'-ville, 74. 

Dar-da-nelle?', 429. 

Dar'-ling River, 500. 

Daw'-son City, 180. 









INDEX 


531 


Dead Sea, 445. 

Del-a-g5'-a Bay, 493. 

Del'-a-ware, 75, 82, 92. 

Del'-a-ware Bay, 1(5. 

Delta, 48:3, 484. 

Den'-inark, 374, 375, 379-381. 

Den'-ver, 157, 1G9. 

Dependencies of United States, 177-190. 
Deserts, 441, 477, 480-481. 

De-troit', 84, 134, 140. 

Diamonds, 29(5, 491,492. 

Dikes, 349. 

District of Co-lum'-bi-a, 94. 

Donro (d6o'-ro), 370. 

Do'-ver, N.H., 01. 

Dreg'-den, 397, 400, 401, Fig. 309. 

Drift, 14. 

Dub'-lin, 342. 

Duluth (du-looth'), 84, 120, 131, 133, 13G, 

200 . 

Duma, 385. 

Dun-dee', 342. 

Dur'-ban, 493. 

DurV-am, 102, 110. 

Dutch, 347, 348, 350, 479, 488, 489. 

Dutch Guiana (ge-ii'-mi), 300, 350. 

Earthquakes, 304, 370, 440, 400. 

Earth, daily motion of, 239. 

Earth, yearly motion of, 240. 

East In'-die§,*350, 509-511. 

Ebro (e'-bro), 305. 

Ecuador (ek'-wa-dor), 302, 305-306. 
Eddies in ocean, 203, 2(54. 

Edinburgh (ed'-n-bur-o), 341, 342, 383. 
E'-gypt, 333, 445, 481-486. 

E-gyp'-tian (shun) Su-dan' (soo), 479, 
481, 495. 

El'-be, 399, 401,420. 

El'-ber-feld, 402. 

El-bruz' (brooz), 383. 

Elevators, 141. 

E-liz'-a-beth, 83. 

El-ml'-ra, 82. 

El Pa'-sO, 114. 

Eng'-land (ing), 327, 328, 333, 335, 337. 
Eng'-lish (ing), 34-510, 489. 

E'-qui-nox, 242. 

E'-rie Canal, 84-85, 194. 

E'-rie, Lake, 75, 84. 


E'-rie, Pa., 82. 

Eritrea (e-rit'-re-a), 490. 

Erzgebirge (erts'-ge-ber-ge), 393. 
Es'-ki-movf, 30, 202, Figs. 189, 191, 192, F. 
Es'-sen, 402. 

E-thi-o'-pi-ans, 270. 

Euphrates (ii-fra'-tez), 443, 445, 440. 
Eurasia (u-ra'-shi-a), 439. 

Europe (ii'-rup), 317-435. 

Ev'-an^-ville, 144. 

Ev'-Sr-est, Mt., 440. 

Exports of United States, 329, 524-528. 


Fa/k'-land Islands, 311. 

Fall line, 67, 98. 

Fall Biver, 01. 62. 

Fa'-roe Islands, 380. 

Farming (see Agriculture). 

Fear, Cape, 99. 

Fe'-tish, 278, Fig. 278. 

Fez, 488. 

Fiji (fe'-je), 512, Fig. 480. 

Fin'-land, 317, 389. 

Fishing, 50, 72, 172,178,195, 350, 370, 380, 
413, 433, 403, 469. 

Fitch'-bfirg, 02. 

Fiuine (fc'-oo-ina), 420. 

Fjords (fyOrdg), 377, Fig. 355. 

Flax, 330. 

Flor'-en^e, 418. 

Flor'-i-da, 4, 99, 100, 100, 107. 

Flour-mills, 141, 388. 

Forests, tropical, 294. 

For-mo'-sa, 4G(5. 

Fort Worth, 114. 

Fo'-riiin, 417. 

France, 215, 355-363, 390, 398, 424. 
Frank'-fprt, 402. 

French, 33, 34, 35, 30, 113, 193, 199. 
French Guiana (ge-a'-na), 300. 

French In'-do Clu'-na, 459. 

Fruits, 74-75, 106, 121, 157, 160, 101, 182, 
185, 198, 199, 209, 294, 296,298,304, 
433, 44., 605. 

Fuehau (foo'-cliou), 404. 

Fur seals, 178, 179. 

Ga-lap'-ft-gOs Islands, 311. 

Gal'-i-lee, Sea of, 445, 440. 




INDEX 


532 

GaP-ves-ton, 88, 114. 

Gan'-geg, 451, 453, 454, 457, 458. 
Ga-ronne', 362. 

Ge-ne'-va, 408. 

Ge-ne'-va Lake, 362, 408. 

Gen'-o-a, 407, 415, 418. 

Geor'-gi-a, 101, 107, 109,110. 

Ger'-man Af'-ri-ca, 493. 

Ger'-man Empire, 390-403, 411. 
Ger'-ma-ny, 318, 320, 348, 349, 361, 362, 
373, 390-403. 

Gey'-§er§ (gl), 165. 

Gi-bral'-tar, 368. 

Glacial Period, 8, 11, 12-15, 319, 332. 
Gla'-cier (shier), 13, 332, 393. 

Glas'-goio, 333, 334, 336, 341. 

Gloucester (glos'-ter), 54, 56, Pig. 53. 
Gold, 108, 147, 148, 152, 153, 154, 179, 
180, 199, 296, 303, 304, 306, 308, 49 i, 
503, 506, Figs. 224, 225. 

Goldfield, 153. 

Got/p-en-burg, 379. 

Gra-na'-da, 368. 

Grand Canal, 419. 

Grand Rapids, 131. 

Granite, 53, 108, 132. 

Grapes, 75,123, 161, 198,298,356, 360, 467, 
413, 424, 433, 444, 445, 487, 490, Fig. A. 
Gravitation, 241, 242. 

Grazing, 107, 327, 335, 366, 386, 395, 490, 
505, 509. 

Great Barrier Reef, 501. 

Great Basin, 149, 151. 

Great Britain (brit'-n), 192, 215, 326-344, 
390, 393, 452, 455, 456. 

Great Lakes, 14, 70, 119, 194. 

Great Plains, 126, 149. 

Great Salt Lake, 150. 

Great Wall, China, 461, Fig. 432. 

Greece, 429, 432-434. 

Greeks, 433, 434. 

Greeley, 159. 

Green'-land, 13, 203, 380. 

Green Mountains, 50, 64. 

Green'-ville, 110. 

Green'-imch, 340. 

Grimg'-by, 330. 

Guadalquivir (gwa-dal-ke-ver'), 365, 367. 
Guadeloupe (ga'-da-loop'), 215. 

Guam (gwam), 187. 


Gwa-te-ma'-la, 213. 

Guayaquil (gwi-a-keP), 306. 

Gwern'-sey, 328. 

Guiana (ge-a'-na), 300. 

Guiana Highlands, 286, 300. 

Guinea (gin'-i), 369, 497. 

Gulf of Mexico, 9, 214. 

Gulf Stream, 50, 99, 264-265, 267, 268. 
Guth'-rie, 115. 

Hagwe, The, 350. 

HaP-ti, 180, 207, 215. 

Halibut, 56, 178. 

Hal'-i-fax, 195, 202. 

Ham'-burg, 390, 398, 399, 401. 
Ham'-il-ton, Bermuda, 217. 

Ham'-il-ton, Cal., 161. 

Ham'-il-ton Bay, 172. 

Ham'-mer-fest, Fig. 358. 

Han-kau' (kou), 465. 

Har'-ris-burg, 82, 92. 

Hart'-ford, 62. 

Hat'-ter-as, Cape, 99. 

Ha-van'-a, 181, 182, Fig. 168. 

Ha'-ver-Zdll, 61, 138, Fig. G. 

Havre (av'r), 358, 362. 

Hawaiian (ha-wa'-yan) Islands, 105, 184- 
186. 

Heat Equator, 247, Figs. 255, 256. 
Heathens, 278, 281. 

He'-bron, 445. 

Hec'-la, Mt., 381. 

Hel'-e-na, 154. 

Hel'-las, 432. 

HeP-sing-fors, 389. 

Hemp, 189. 

Her-cu-la'-ne-um, 415. 

Herzegovina (hert-se-go-ve'-na), 426, 429 . 
Hilo (he'-lo), 185. 

Him-aMa-ya, 440, 451, 453, 456. 

Hin'-dus (doos), 455. 

Ho-ang'-ho, 461. 

Ho'-bo-ken, 82, 83, 87. 

Hogs, 107, 121, 124, 138, 139, 430. 
Hol'-land, 319, 346-350, 382, 393. 

Holy Land, 445. 

HoP-yoke, 53. 

Hon-du'-ras (doo), 213. 

Hong'-kong, 465. 

Ho-no-lu'-lu (loo-loo), 185. 










INDEX 


533 


Horse Latitudes, 247, 248, 287, 412. 
Horses, 107, 121, 122. 

Hous'-tgn, 114. 

Ho'-vas, 408. 

Hud'-sgn Bay, 100. 

Hud'-son Biver, 71, 83, 84, 85, 87. 

Hull, 330, 330, 340. 

Hun'-ga-ry, 424, 420. 

Ilu'-ron, Lake, 137. 

Iceberg, 13, 204. 

Tce'-land, 373, 381. 

T'-da-ho, 140, 155. 

Il-li-nois', 7G, 110, 129,137. 

Immigrants, 37. 

Imports of United States, 524-525. 

Incas (ing'-kas), 201, 300, 307, 308. 
In'-di-a, 4, 333, 343, 447. 451-458. 478. 
In-di-an'-a, 70, 110, 125, 130, 144. 
In'-di-an Ocean, 472. 

In-di-an-ap'-o-lis, 88, 144. 

In'-di-ans, American, 30-32, 115, 277, 
278, 201, Fig. 1). 

Indian Territory, 115. 

In'-do-Chl'-iui, 303, 458-460. 

In'-dus, 451, 458. 

I'-5-wa, 120, 135, 142. 

Iquique (e-ke'-ka), 310. 

Iron manufacturing, 81, 82, 108, 100, 333, 
307, Figs. 72, 73. 

Iron ore, 80, 81, 108, 100, 181,100, Figs. 
222, 223. 

Irawadi (6-ra-wa'-di), 450. 

Ireland (i'-er-land), 320, 327, 334-336, 
337, 343. 

Ir-kutsk' (kootsk), 451. 

Irrigation, 157, 158, 150, 208. 
Ish'-pem-ing, 133. 

I'-so-tlu'rms, 271, 272. 

Italian Somaliland, 470. 

It'-a-ly, 402, 411-419, 424. 

Ith'-a-ca, 78, 80. 

.Lack'-son-ville, 100, 101, 108. 

Ja-mai'-ca, 180, 215. 

Ja-pan', 200, 389, 433, 450, 466-470. 
Jap-a-nese' Current, 200. 

Ja'-va, 350, 510, 511. 

Jef'-fer-son City, 142. 

Jrr'-sey City, 82, 83, 87. 


Jer'-iey Islands, 328. 

Je-ru'-sa-lem (rob), 440. 

Jews, 281, 445. 

Jin-rik'-i-sha, Fig. 440. 

Jo-han'-nes-burg (yo), 401. 

Jop'-lin, 135. 

Jop'-pa, 44G. 

Jor'-dan, 445. 

Juan Fernandez (hoo-an' fPr-nan'-deth), 
311. 

Juneau (jOb-no'), 170. 

Jungles, 453. 

Jura (job'-ra) Mountains, 405. 

Jut'-land, 375. 

KiV-bul, 440. 

Ka-na'kas, Figs. 273, FF. 

Kan'-sas, 125, 120, 142. 

Kan'-sas City, 120, 142. 

Ka-tali'-din, 50, 53, Fig. 04. 

Ken-ne-bec', 52. 

Ken-tuck'-y, 107, 123, 143. 

Key West, 110. 

Khedive (ke-ilev'), 485, 480. 

Khiva (ke'-vti), 440. 

Kil-i-man'-ja-ro, 472. 

Kil-lar'-ney Lakes, Fig. 320. 

Kim'-ber-ley, 401, 403, Fig. 402. 
King'-ston, Jamaica, 215. 

Ki-o'-to (ke), 470. 

Klou'-dike, 170, 100. 

Knox'-ville (nox), 100. 

Ivon'-gO River, 303, 472, 470, 403, Fig. 403. 
Ivon'-go State, 354, 407. 

Konigsberg (ke'-nigs-berg), 302. 

Ko-re'-a, 400. 

Kre'-feld (kni), 402. 

Kurile (koo'-ril) Islands, 400. 

Lab-ra-dor', 10, 102, 207. 

Lab-ni-dor' Current, 50, 71, 100, 200, 205, 
200, 207. 

Lachine (lii-shen') Rapids, 200. 
La-Crftsse', 131. 

La-drones', 180. 

Lan'-cas-ter, 75. 

LS l‘az' (path), 300. 

Lapland, 373. 

La l’la'-ta, 200. 

Lar'-a-mie, 150. 




INDEX 


#34 

La Salle', 34. 

Lat'-i-tude, 40-41. 

Law'-reiiQe, 61. 

Lead, 135, 152, 154, 155, 211. 
Lead'-ville, 154. 

Leather manufacturing, 61. 

Leedg, 333, 336. 

Leicester (les'-ter), 333. 

Leipzig (lip'-tsig), 400. 

Leith (leth), 342. 

Lemons, 106, 157. 

Lena River, 441. 

Leon (la-on'), Fig. 201. 

Le'-o-pold-ville, 472, 493. 

Lesser An-til'-le§, 215. 

Levee (le-ve' or lev'-i), 112. 

Lew'-is-ton, 60. 

Lex'-ing-ton, 123. 

Li-be'-ri-a, 497. 

Lib'-y-an Desert, 479. 

Liechtenstein (lek-ten-stin'), 426. 

Liege (li-azh'), 354. 

Li'-ma (le), 307, Fig. 299. 

Limestone, 80, 81, 108, 123, 132. 

Limoges (le-mozh'), 362. 

Lincoln (ling'-kon), 142. 

Linen, 335, 336. 

Lig'-bon, 369, 370. 

Little Rock, 110. 

Liv'-er-pool, 336, 340. 

Lla'-ma, 290, 308, Fig. 301. 

Lla'-no, 288, 301. 

JjOck'-port, 85, Fig. 61. 

Lodz, 389. 

Lof-o'-den Islands, 376. 

Loire (lwar), 360, 361. 

London (lun'-dun), 330, 336, 337-339. 
340. 

Lon'-gi-tude, 41-43. 

Lords, House of, 344. 

Los Al-am-i'-tos, 161. 

Los Angeles (an'-gel-es), 147, 151, Fig. 
144, 153, 154. 

Louisiana (loo-e-zi-an'-a), 104, 105, 110. 
Louisville (loo'-is-vil), 120, 125, 143. 
Louren^o Marquez (lo-ren'-so mar'-kes) 
493. 

Louvre (lobvr), 361. 

Low Countries, 319. 

Low'-ell, 61, 62. 


Lower Guinea, 497. 

Low Pressure Areas, 256, 257. 

Lu-§erne', Lake, 409, Fig. 380. 
Luck'-now, 458. 

Lumbering, 50-53, 72, 100-101, 130-131, 
150-157, Figs. 40, 92, 117, 118, 139, 
140, 143. 

Lux'-em-burg, 390. 

Lu-zon' (lob), 186, 189, 190. 

Lynch'-burg, 74. 

Lynn, 61, 138. 

Lyon (li-on'), 362. 

Mac-ken'-zie River, 193. 

Mackerel, 57. 

Ma'con, 101, 110. 

Mad-a-gas'-car, 363, 498. 

Ma-dei'-ra Islands, 370, 498. 

Ma-dras', 458. 

Ma-drid', Columbia, 303. 

Ma-drid', Spain, 367-368, 387. 

Ma-gel'-lan Strait, 298. 

Ma-guey' (gwa), 209. 

Magyars (mod'yorz), 423. 

Main River, 402. 

Maine, 50, 52, 53, 55, 60, 156. 

Mal'-a-ga, 369. 

Ma-lay' Peninsula, 458-460. 

Ma-lays', 188, 458, 460, 509, 510. 

Mal'-den, 63. 

Mam'-moth Cave, 123. 

Ma-na'-os, 293. 

Man'-ches-ter, Eng., 333, 336. 
Man'-ches-ter, N.H., 60, 62. 

Man'-da-lay, 456. 

Man-di-5'-ca, 294. 

Man-go, 453. 

Man-hat'-tan Island, 88. 

Ma-nil'-a, 186, 187, 189, 190, 511. 
Man-i-to'-ba, 192, .197, Fig. 198. 

Mankind, 276-278. 

Manufacturing, 59, 108-110, 223, 298. 
331-334, 348, 352, 357-360, 367, 37.), 
386, 396-397, 407, 414, 425, 454. 

Msi-o'-rig, 508. 

Marble, 53, 54. 

Mariposa Grove, 169, Fig. 152. 

Marquette (mar-ket'), 133. 

Marseille (mar-sal'), 362. 

Mar'-tha’g Vine'-yard, 49, 69. 






INDEX 


535 


Mar-ti-nique' (nek), 213, 216. 

Mar'-y-land (mer), 75. 

Mas-sa-chu'-setts (clioo), 55. 

Ma-tan'-zas, 183. 

Mat'-ter-horn, Fig. 379. 

Mau'-na Lo'-a, 184. 

Mauritius (ma-risli'-i-us), 498. 

Mec'-ca, 448. 

Med'-i-ter-ra'-n6-an, 320, 323, 363, 411, 
412, 428, 439, 443, 444, 447, 479, 482, 
483, 484, 487, 497, 504. 

Mel'-bourne (b8rn), 507. 

Mem'-phis, 101, 110, 113. 

Merced River, 169. 

Mer'-i-den, 62. 

Mer'-ri-mac River, 61. 

Mes-o-pb-ta'-mi-a, 445, 446. 

Metal manufacturing, 61,62. 

Metz, 392. 

Mex'-i-cb, 206-212. 

Mex'-i-cb City, 207, 211. 

Mex'-i-co, Gulf of, 9, 214. 

Mich'-i-gan (mish), 123, 130, 131, 133, 
134, 135, 166. 

Mich'-i-gan, Lake, 132, 137, 139, 140. 
Middle Atlantic States, 67-95. 

Mi-ka'-db, 467, 468, 4(59. 

Mi-lan', 412, 418. 

Milk, 58, 73, 121. 

Mil-waw'-kee, 120, 139. 

Min-da-na'-b (men), 18(5. 

Mining, 76, 108, 131, 152, 179, 199, 210, 
330, 352, 357, 367, 378, 386, 396, 413, 
424, 453, 459, 491, 506. 

Ministers, British, 344. 

Min-ne-ap'-b-lis, 126, 131, 141. 
Min-ne-so'-ta, 14, 119, 125, 130, 131, 134, 
136, 141. 

Miquelon (mek'-lon), 192. 

Mir (mer), 385. 

Mis-sis-sip'-pi River, 9, 98, 105, 112, 119, 
140. 

Mis-sis-sip'-pi, State, 110. 

Mis-sou'-ri (sob) River, 136, 142. 
Mis-sou'-ri, State, 119, 135, 140, 142. 
Mo-bile' (bel), 101, 110. 

Mb'-c/oa, 447. 

Mb-ham'-me-dan$, 190, 281, 429, 431, 444, 
446, 448, 449, 486, 487, 488. 

Mb'-havvk River, 70. 


Mon'-a-co, 355. 

Mo-nad'-npck, Mt., 79. 

Mon-go'-li-a, 460. 

Mon-gb'-li-ans, 277, 385, 423, 455, 456, 
462, 467. 

Mon-rb'-vi-a. 497. 

Mon-sbbn', 259, 260, 261, 451, 460. 
Mon-ta'-na, 154, 155, 161. 

Mont Blanc (mbn blon), 355, 451. 
Mon-te-ne'-grb (na), 420, 428. 

Monterey Bay, 172. 

Mon-te-vid'-e-o, 300. 

Mont-gom'-e-ry, 101, 110. 

Mont-re-al', 36, 195, 200, 201, 202, 412. 
Moors, 368. 

Mo-raine', 14. 

Mor'-mpns, 159. 

Mo-roc'-co, 369, 479, 480, 488. 

Mb'-rbs, 190. 

Mos'-cbio, 383, 387. 

Mfiir Glacier, 178. 

Mu'-nic/i, 402, 403. 

Mur'-ray River, 500, 505. 

Na-go'-ya, 470. 

Nan-tuck'-et, 49. 

Na'-plcs, 414, 415. 

Nar-ra-gan'sett Bay, (54. 

Nash'-u-a, 61. 

Nash'-ville, 113. 

Nas'-sa?/, 216. 

Nii-till', 490, 493. 

Natural gas, 78, 79, 132. 

Naz'-a-reth, 446. 

Ne-bras'-ka, 129, 142. 

Nebraska, U.S.S., 171. 

Negroes, 276, 478, 490, 493. 

Ne-pal', 457. 

Neth'-er-lands, 346-350. 351,353. 
NC-va'-da, 149, 150, 153. 

New'-ark, 82, 83. 

New Bed'-fprd, 61, 62. 

New Bruns'-wick, 192, 194, 198. 

New Cal-e-db'-ni-a, 512. 

New England States, 49-64. 
New'-found-land, 16, 66, 192-202. 

New G?/(\-tb-raa'-lft, 213. 

New Guinea (gin'-i), 898, 609. 

New Hamp'-shire, 49, 50, 60, 62, (54. 

New Ha'-ven, 62. 






536 


INDEX 


New Jer'-sey, 75, 80, 82, 83, 87, 92. 

New Mex'-i-co, 147, 155, 163, 164. 

New Or'-le-ans, 34, 104, 105, 110, 111-113, 
114. 

New'-port News, 71. 

New'-port, R.I., 64. 

New South Waleg, 503, 505, 507. 

New York City, 67, 81, 83-89, 92, 93. 

New York State, 15, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 80, 
81, 82, 89. 

New Zea'-land, 508-509. 

Ni T ag'-ar-a Falls, 15, 70, 87, 472, Figs. 65, 
74, H. 

Nice (nes), Fig. 340. 

Ni'-ger, 363, 476, 493. 

Nl'-ger Territories, 495. 

Nij'-ni (nezh), Nov'-go-rod, 387. 

Nile, 472, 476, 481-483, 493. 

Nineveh, 446. 

Nip-on', 466. 

Nitrate of. soda, 310. 

Nom'-adg, 448, Fig. 449. 

Nome City, 180. 

Nor'-foZk, 72, 95. 

Nor'-man§, 327. 

Nor'-ris-town, 92. 

North America, 1, 47, 192, 219, 439, 441 
460. 

North Atlantic Eddy, 263. 

North Cape, Fig. 257. 

North Carolina, 98, 100,101, 102, 107, 110. 
North Dakota, 125, 126, Figs. 112, 113. 
North Sea, 350, 394. 

Nor'-way, 317, 373-378, 379, 380, 386, 424. 
No'-va Sco'-tia (sha), 16, 192, 195, 198, 
199. 

Nu'-rem-berg, 403. 

Ny-as'-sa, Lake, 497. 

Oak'-land, 170. 

O'-a-seg, 480, 482, 484. 

Oats, 126, 197. 

Ob'-e-lisk, 484. 

Ocean Currents, 263-268. 

O'-der, 399. 

O-des'-sa, 388, 426. 

Og'-den, 159. 

O-ln'-o, 74, 76, 79, 119, 121,123, 125, 130, 
132, 140, 143, Fig. 107. 

Ohio River, Figs. 119, 140. 


Oil City, 79. 

Ok-la-ho'-ma, 114, 115. 

Old Point Comfort, 71. 

O-le-an', 79. 

O-ma-ha, 129, 142. 

On-ta'-ri-o, Lake, 75. 

Ontario, Province, 192, 198. 

O-por'-to, 363, 370. 

Orange Free State, 489. 

Orange River, 492. 

Oranges, 99, 106, 157, 160, 182, 209, Fm 
144. 

Orbit of Earth, 241. 

Or'-e-gon, 149, 150, 156, 170, 172. 

Oregon, U.S.S., 171. 

O-ri-no'-co, 286, 301, 302. 

O-ri-za'-ba, 206. 

O-sa'-ka, 469. 

Osli'-kosh, 131. 

Ot'-ta-wa, 192, 195, 201. 

Ot'-to-man Empire, 429, 431-432, 444-448. 
Ox'-ford, 340. 

Oxnard, 161. 

Oysters, 71, 330. 


Pa-Qif'-ic Currents, 266, 267, 268. 

Pacific, Islands of, 512. 

Pacific Ocean, 18, 177, 184, 193, 251, 266 
267, 285, 382, 450, 517. 

Pa-gq'-da, Figs. 426, 429, 430. 

Pa'-go Pa'-g5, 186. 

Pa-ler'-mo, 418. 

Pal'-es-tlne, 445, 446. 

Pam'-pas, 288, 296. 

Pan-a-ma', 304. 

Pan-a-ma' Canal, 214. 

Pan-a-ma'Ts^'-mus, 18, 304. 

Pa-ra', 296. 


Pa'-ra-guay (gwi), 300. 
Pa'-ra-guay (gwi) tea, 300. 
Pa-ra-na', 293, 299, 300. 
Par'-is, 358, 360-362, 426. 
Par'-li-a-ment, 344. 
Pat-a-go'-ni-a, 288, 298. 
Pat'-er-son, 83. 
Paw-tuck'-et, 61. 


Pe-king', 441, 460, 465, 466. 
Penn-syl-va'-ni-a, 4, 53, 55, 70 , 72 , 74 7 ( 
76, 79, 82, 92, 93, 99, 132. ' 








INDEX 


537 


Pe-nob'-scot, 52. 

Pen-sa-co'-la, 101. 
l’e-o'-ri-a, 125, 120. 

Pepper, 182, 210. 
l’er-nam-bu'-co (boo), 200. 

PSr'-sia (shi-a), 442, 444, 448-449. 

Pe-ru' (roo), 291, 302, 303, 306-308. 
Peruvian bark, 307. 

Petroleum, 78, 79, 108, 132, 189, Figs. 71, 
89. 

Phil-a-del'-phi-a, 82, 83, 92-93. 

Philippine Islands (fiP-ip-pin), 105, 171, 
186-190. 510, 511. 

Phoenix, 104. 

Pied'-mont Plateau, 07, 98. 

Pilatus, 409. 

Pilgrims, 347. 

Pl-rae'-us, 434. 

Pisa (pe'-za), Fig. 384. 

Pitts'-burg, 70, 78, 82, 83, 92, 111, 143. 
Plants, 20 29, 288-289, 441-442, 477, 502. 
Pla'-ta, 298, 299. 

Po, 412, 418, 451. 

Po'-land, 389, 401, 421. 

Pom-pe'-ii (pa-ye), 415. 

Pon^e (or pon'-tha), 184. 

Pon£-char-train', Lake, 112. 

Popocatepetl (po-po'-cat-ii-pa-t’l), 200. 
Port' an (o) Pringe, 215. 

Port Costa, 223. 

Pfirt'-land, Me., 52, 02. 

Portland, Ore., 172. 

Por'to Ri'-co (re), 105, 180-184. 207. 

Port Said (sfi-ed'), 480. 

PSrts'-mouth, Eng., 337. 

POrts'-mouth, N.H., 62. 

Por'-tu-gal, 305, 300, 307, 369-370, 487. 
P0'-§en, 392. 

Potatoes, 29, 58, 75, 217, 300, 329, 335, 
348, 378, .386, 395. 

Po-to'-mac River, 70. 

Pots'-diim, 400. 

Pottery, 83, 135, 362, 379, 403, 470. 
Poughkeepsie (po-kip'-si), 92. 

Prague, 425, 420. 

Prairies, 119. 

Prescott, 104. 

Prevailing Westerlies, 240, 247, 248, 253, 
257, 287, 288, 321, 322, 323, 327, 405, 
501. 


Pribilof (pre-be-lov') Islands, 178. 
Prime Minister, 344. 

Prince Edward Island, 192, 195, 198. 
Prov'-i-dence, 01, 02. 
Prov'-in^e-town, 55. 

Prussia (prush'-a), 391, 394, 400. 
Puebla (pweb'-la), 212. 

Pueblo (pweb'-lo), 31, 155, 159. 
Pueblo Indians, 31, 104, 207. 

Pu'-get Sound, 10, 173. 

Pygmies, 493, 494, 495. 

Pyramids, Figs. 448, 452, 1)1). 
Pyr'-e-nees, 318, 355, 365. 

Quarrying, 53, 59, 108, 413. 

Que-bec', 192, 201. 

Que-bec', Province of, 192, 194. 
Queens'-land, 503, 505. 

Queens'-town, 342. 

Quin'-cy (zi), Mass., 54. 

Quinine, 307. 

Quito (ke'-t6), 300. 


Railways, 03, 85, 92, 120, 137, 173, 202, 
234, 235, 290, 301, 337, 349, 353, 302, 
308, 379, 387, 399, 407, 408, 425, 454, 
409, 485, 497, 507, 509, Fig. 237. 

Rain, 248-261. 

Rain Belts, 249-261. 

Ra'-leigh (li), 110. 

Ranching, 126, 101, 197, 208, 209, 297, 
299, 300, 310, 504, 505. 

Rangoon, 450. 

Rawhide, 153. 

Read'-ing, 82. 

Red River, 125, 157, 198. 

Red Sea, 439. 

Reichstag (liks'-tag), 391, Fig. 306. 
Religion, 278-279. 

Reunion, 498. 

Revolution of Earth, 240-241. 

R/une, 346, 350, 301, 362, 392, 401, 402, 
408. 


Rhode Ls'-land, 01, 02. 

R/ione, 350, 300, 301, 302. 

Rice, 104, 185, 188, 209, 223, 300, 413, 452i 
454, 458, 409, 480, 490, 511, Fig. 171. 
Rich'-mond, 74, 94. 

Ri'-ga (re), 388. 






538 


INDEX 


Iligi (re'-ge), Mt., 409. 

Rio cle Janeiro (re'-o-da zlia-na'-e-ro), 290. 
Rio (re'-o) Grande, 151. 

Ro-a-noke', 82. 

Roch'-es-ter, 75. 

Kock'-y Mountains, 149, 151, Fig. 134. 
Ro'-man Empire, 411, 417, 444. 

Ro'-mans, 327, 355, 433. 

Home, 411, 416-417, 420, 433. 

Rome, Ga., 109. 

Ro-sa'-ri-o, 299. 

Rotation of Earth, 239. 

Rot'-ter-dam, 350. 

Rouen (roo'-on), 358, 302. 

Rou-ma'-ni-a (roo), 428, 429, 430, 431. 
Rubber, 213, 295, 300, 305, 497. 

Russia (rusli'-a), 79, 373, 382-389, 393, 
421, 429, 449-451, 400. 

Rut'-land, 64. 

Sac-ra-men'-to, 157, 170. 

Sag'-i-naw, 131. 

Saghalien, 406. 

Sa-ha'-ra Desert, 254, 363, 479, 480-481, 
495. 

St. Au'-gus-tine (ten), 100. 

St. Croix (krwa), 216, Fig. 205. 

St. Etienne (san-ta-te-en'), 357, 358. 

St. Goth'-ard Tunnel, 408. 

St. He-le'-na, 498. 

St. Hel'-eng, 6. 

St. John’s, 195, 196. 

St. Joseph, 142. 

St. Law'-renge, Gulf of, 16. 

St. Law'-renge River, 192, 194, 199, 200, 

201 . 

St. Louis (loo'-is), 34, 126, 129, 140, 141, 
142. 

St. Paul, 88, 111, 126, 141. 

St. Pierre (pe-air'), 192. 

St. Pe'-ter’s, 417. 

St. Pe'-ters-burg, 320, 388, 426. 

St. Thomas, 216. 

St. Vin'-gent, 216. 

Sa'-lem, Mass., 63, 201. 

Sa'-lem, Ore., 172. 

Salmon, 172, 173, 178, 195, 196, Figs. 

155, 156, 183, 184. 

Salt, 76, 108. 

Salt Lake City, 159. 


Sa-mo'-a, 186. 

San An-to'-ni-o (ne), 114. 

San Diego Bay, 172. 

San Fran-gis'-co, 147, 169, 170, 171, 172 
Figs. P, R, S. 

San Josb (lio-sa'), 150. 

San Juan (hwan), 184. 

San Pedro Bay, 172. 

San Sal'-va-dor, 212, 213. 

Santa Barbara Channel, 172. 

San'-ta F4 (fa), 164. 

San-ti-a'-go, 181, 182. 

San'-to D5-mingo (meng'-go), 215. 
San'-tos, 295, 296. 

Srtone, 361. 

Sao Paulo (sowng pou'-lo), 296. 
Sar-din'-i-a, 411. 

Sar-gas'-so Sea, 263, 264. 

Sar-sa-pa-ril'-la, 305. 

Sas-katch'-e-wan, 192. 

Sault Ste. Marie (soo sant ma'-ri), 137. 
Sa-van'-nah, 101, 104. 

Sa-vanGnas, 288, 477. 

Sax'-ons, 327.. 

Sax'-o-ny, 401. 

Scan-di-na'-vi-a, 323, 373, 374, 385. 
Schenectady (ske-nek'-ta-di), 82. 
Scot'-land, 317, 327, 333, 341, 342. 

Scran'-ton, 77, 82. 

Seals, 178, 179. 

Se-at'-tle, 157, 172, 173. 

Seine (san), 358, 360, 361, 362, Fig. 343. 
Ser'-vi-a, 426, 429-430. 

Seville (sev'-il), 367, 368. 

Sevres (savr), 362. 

Shah, 449. 

Shang'-hai (hi), 465. 

Shas'-ta, Mt., 6, 150, Fig. 6. 

Sheep, Argentina, 297. 

Sheep, Australia, 504, 505. 

Sheep Raising, 107, 122, 161, 197, 297, 
328, 358, 366, 386, 429, 433, 447, 448, 
487, 491, 504. 

Shef'-field, 333, 334, 336. 

Shet'-land Islands, 328. 

Shipbuilding, 82, 93, 171, Figs. 147, 185. 
Sl-am', 458, 459. 

Sl-be'-ri-a, 382, 389, 441, 449, 450, 451. 
Sicily (sls'-i-li), 411, 413, 418. 

Si-er'-ra (se) Le-5'-ne, 497. 






INDEX 


539 


Si-er'-ra (se) Ne-va'-da Mountains, 148, 
149, 169. 

Sierra Nevada Mountains, Spain, 365. 
Silk, 359, 413, 430, 448, 459, 463, 464, 465. 
Silver, 155, 210, 211, 306. 

Sim'-plon Tunnel, 408. 

Sin-ga-pore', 460. 

Sit'-ka, 177, 178, 179. 

Slate, 65. 

Slavs, 385, 423, 429. 

Slavery, 36, 37, 102, 215, 291, 292. 
Smyrna (smSr'-na), 444. 

So-ma'-li-land, Italian, 496. 

Som'-er-ville, 63. 

South Af'-ri-ca, 478, 488-493. 

South A-mer'-i-ca, 285-311, 452, 460, 
472. 

South-amp'-ton, 336. 

South Aus-tra'-li-a, 503, 505. 

South Car-6-]I'-na, 101. 

South Da-ko'-ta, 119, 135. 

Southern States, 98-115, 333. 

South Georgia, 311. 

Spain, 186, 207, 208, 292, 347, 364-369, 
487. 

Span'-iards (yard), 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 147, 
182, 188, 189; 190, 207, 210, 211, 291, 
292, 303, 300, 307, 308. 

Spice Islands, 511. 

Spo-kane', 172-173. 

Spreckels, 161. 

Spring'-field, Mass., 62. 

Standard Time, 44 46. 

Stan'-ley Pool, 493. 

Stass'-furt (foort), 396. 

Steppes, 386, 429, 441. 

Stet-tin' (ten), 399, 401. 

Stock'-hoZm, 379. 

Stock'-tpn, 157, 170. 

Stock yards, 137, 138, 139. 

Storms, cyclonic, 257, 258, 259. 

Straits Settlement, 459. 

St,ra?s'-lmrg, 392. 

Strat'-fqrd-on-A'-von, Fig. 326. 

Sudan (soo-dan'), 363, 479, 480, 495. 

Su-ez' (s<ir>), 486. 

Suez Canal, 485, 486. 

Su-ez' (soo), Isthmus of, 439, 485. 

Sugar, lot, 105, 106, 181, 188, 185, 189, 
209. 


Sugar, beet, 104, 105, 161, 397, 425, Fig. 
146. 

Sugar, maple, 53. 

Sultan, 190, 431, 488. 

Sulu (soo-loo') Islands, 190. 

Su-ina'-tra (soo), 512. 

Su-pe'-ri-or (sGo), 131, 133. 

Su-pe'-ri-or, Lake, 132, 133, 134. 

Surinam (soo-ri-nam'), 300. 
Sus-que-han'-na (kwe) Kiver, 70. 
Swan'-sea, 367. 

Swe'-den, 373, 374, 378-379. 424 
Sweet potatoes, 107. 

Swit'-zer-land, 362, 405-409. 414. 
Syd'-ney, Australia, 607. 

Syd'-ney, Cape Hreton, 199. 

Syr'-a-cuse, 82. 

Syr'-i-an Desert, 446. 

Ta-c5-ma, 150, 156, 157, 172, 173. 
Ta-li-let', 480. 

Ta'-gus Hiver, 369. 

Tam'-pa, 108, 110. 

Tam-pi'-cO (pe), 212. 

TSn-gan-yi'-ka (ye), 489, 497. 

Tan-gier' (ger), 488. 

Tanneries, 61, 101, 139. 

Ta'-os Pueb'-lo, Fig. 28. 

Tapioca, 295. 

Tar'-tar?, 444. 

Tash-kend', 451. 

Ta?-ma'-ni-a, 500, 503, 505. 

Ta?m'-ton, 61. 

Tea, 456, 457, 458, 459, 464, 469. 

Teheran (te-hran'), 449. 

Temperate Zones, 261, Fig. 244. 
Temperature, Distribution of, 268-272. 
Ten-nes-see', 98, 101, 102, 107, 108, 113. 
Territories of United States, 177-190. 
Teil'-tqns, 385. 

Tex'-as, 60, 99, 100, 102, 104, 107, 108. 

113, 114, 115. 

Thames (temz), 337. 

TT'-ber, 416. 

Ti-bet', 440, 460. 

Tides, 262-263. 

Tientsin (te-en'-tsen'), 465. 

Tif-lis' (16s), 451. 

Ti’-gris, 445, 446, 447. 

Tim-buk’-tu (too), 480. 





540 


INDEX 


Ti-mor' (te), 510. 

Tin, 308, 459. 

Ti-ti-ca'-ca (te-te), 308. 

Tobacco, 29, 31, 74, 98, 181, 183, 189, 
209, 213, 296, 298, 304, 310, 368, 386, 
395, 424, 431, 433, 448, 452, 490, Fig. 
68 . 

To-bii'-go, 311. 

To'-ki-o (ke), 469. 

To-le'-do, 140. 

Tong'-a Islands, Fig. 479. 

Ton'-o-pah, 153. 

To-pe'-ka, 143. 

To-ron'-to, 195, 201, 202. 

Trade Winds, 244-248. 

Trans-vaal', 489, 490, 491, 493. 
Treb'-i-zond, 444. 

Tren'-ton, 83, 92. 

Trieste (tre-est'), 426. 

Trin'-i-dad, 311. 

Trip'-o-li, 479, 487, 488. 

Tropical Forests, 294, 476. 

Trop'-ics, 242. 

Troy, 82. 

Tucson (tob'-son), 155, 164. 

Tun'-dra§, 21, 441. 

Tu'-nis, 363, 479, 487, 488. 

Tu'-rin, 418. 

Tur-kes-tan', 449, 450, 460. 

Tur-kes-tan' (Chinese), 460. 

Tur'-key in Asia, 444-447. 

Tur'-key in Europe, 426, 429, 430, 431- 
432, 434. 

Turpentine, 101. • 

Tuskegee Institute, 114, Fig. 96. 

Tutuila (tbb-tbo-el'-a), 186. 

Typhoons (ti-fbbns'), 187. 

United Kingdom, 327, 344, 396, 411. 
United States, 47-190. 

Universities, 63, 89, 93, 139, 170, 340, 
342, 387, Figs. 124 a, 124 n, 125 a, 
125 b. 

Upernivik (bo-per'-ni-vik), 203. 

Upolu (bb-po-lbo'), 186. 

Upper Guinea, 297. 

U'-ral Mountains, 318, 386. 

Uruguay (bb-rob-gwi'), 299-300. 

U'-taA, 150, 155. 

U-ti-ca, 73. 


Va-len'-cia (shi-a), 369. 

Val-pa-rai'-so, 311. 

Van-cou'-ver (kbb), 202. 

Vat'-i-can, 416, Fig. 486. 

Ven-e-zue'-la, 300-302. 

Ven'-i§e, 412, 419, Figs. 388, 389. 

Ve'-ra Cruz (krobz), 207, 212. 

Ver-mont', 50, 53, 54. 

Versailles (ver-salz'), f .o", 362. 
Ye-su'-vi-us (sob), 414, 4tl5, Fig. E. 
Viceroy, 456, 457, 464. 

Vic-to'-ri-a, Australia, 503, 507. 
Vic-to'-ri-a, Canada, 202. 

Vic-to'-ri-a Falls, 472, 492, Pigs. BB, CC, 
EE. 

Vic-to'-ri-a Ny-an'-za, 497. 

Vi-en'-na, 421, 426. 

Vir-gin'-i-a (ver), 71, 74, 75, 82, 94, 95. 
Vir-gin'-i-a City, 153. 

Vis-a'-li-a, 161. 

Vla-di-vos-tok', 451. 

Vol-ca'-noc§, 6, 9, 150, 178, 184, 186, 206, 
212, 216, 286, 305. 

Vol'-ga, 386. 

Waleg, 327, 331, 367. 

Wal'-fisch Bay, 493. 

Wal'-tham, 62. 

War'-saie, 389. 

Wash'-ing-ton, 94, 113, Fig. 85. 
Wash'-ing-ton, Mt., 50, 53. 
Wash'-ing-ton, State, 149, 150, 155, 156, 
172, Fig. J. 

Wa'-ter-bury (ber-i), 62. 

Wa'-ter-loo', 351. 

Wa'-ter-town, N.Y., 72. 

Watsonville, 161. 

Weather Maps, 258, Figs. 259, 260. 
Wel'-ling-ton, 509. 

West Australia, 503. 

Western States, 147-173. 

AVest In'-die§, 186, 207, 214-216. 

West Point, 89. 

West Vir-gin'-i-a, 70, 79, 82, 93, 95, 
132. 

Westward migration, 36. 

West Wind Drift, 266. 

Whales, 178. 

Wheat, 125, 126, 157, 197, 208, 298, 305, 
306, 310, 329, 335, 348, 356, 367, 378, 



INDEX 


541 


380, 395, 413, 424, 429, 444, 445, 448, 
452, 409, 489, 490, 505. 

WheelMng, 82, 83, 143. 

White Mountains, 49, 50. 

White race, 277, 278. 

Wich'-i-ta, 143. 

Wilkes'-bar-re, 77. 

Wil'-liams-port, 72. 

Wil'-ming-ton, 75, 82, 92, 93. 

Winds, 244-261. 

Winds, influence on climate, 271. 
Windsor Castle, 340. 

Win'-ni-peg, 197. 

Wi-no'-na, 131. 

Wis-con'-sin, 130, 131, 134, 135, 139. 
Wool manufacturing, 00, 02, 333, 357. 
Woun-sock'-et, Gl. 

Worcester (woos'-ter), 02. 

Wu-chang' (woo), 405. 

Wy-o'-ming, 159, 104. 


Yang'-tse-ki-ang' (ke), 401. 
Yar'-moutli, 195. 

Yellow Race, 277, 443. 

Yel'-low-stone Park, 164-165, Fig. K. 
Yer'-ba ma'-te, 300. 

Y5-k5-ha'-ma, 407, 409. 

Yo-sem'-i-te, 109, Figs. A, M, W. 
Yu-ca-tan', 207. 

Yu'-kon, 180, 193. 

Zam-be'-zi, 472, 492, 493. 

Zan'-zi-bar, 498. 

Zinc, 135, 350, 413. 

Zones, 242-243, Fig. 244. 

Zuider Zee (zi'-dSr ze), 348, 350. 

Zulu (zob'-loo), 490. 

Zululand (zoo'-loo-land), 490. 

Zurich (zoo'-rik), 407, 408. 

Zurich (zob'-rik), Lake, 407. 



Squabs by the million—waiting to go into pie. 
A sight near Los Angeles. 







Vernal Falls, Yosemite Valley. 

The Merced River at this point is eighty feet wide and drops vertically three hundred and 

fifty feet. 









“HOW SHE SITS LIKE 
THE BEAUTIFUL 


A QUEEN BESIDE 
SUNSET SEA” 



Fig. 513. 

State Capitol, Sacramento. 


A SUPPLEMENT 


BY THE 

STATE TEXT-I500K COMMITTEE 

WITH THE COUNSEL AND ASSISTANCE OP 

ALLISON WARE, R. E. IIOLWAY, JOB WOOD, JR., MARY E. GEORGE, 
R. B. HAYDOCK, LEWIS E. AURURY, C. K. STUDLEY, 

J. B. MONLUX, and WILLARD S. JOHNSON 


















544 


The United States Atlantic Fleet about to enter San Francisco Bay through the “ Golden Gate,” May 6, 1908 The view from 
which this cut was made was taken from the bridge of Admiral Evans’ Flagship, " U. S. Battleship Connecticut.” 















ASIDE TO THE TEACHER 


You will find this little Supplement a very inadequate thing. 
The reason is not hard to find. It is impossible within the limits . 
of so few pages to give an adequate treatment of a state so large, so 
varied, so wonderful, as California. 

So do not get it into your head for a moment that what is here 
set down is all your young people need to know of their home land, 

or that your work is done when you have taught this and nothing 
more. 

1 his will serve, perhaps, as an introduction; as a skeleton for 
your work. But if you cannot follow up the introduction by many 
an entertaining conversation, cannot build upon and round out 
the skeleton by stories and pictures and poems and experiences 
galore, your work will be poor indeed. Make of it a pleasant thing; 
pleasant for you and delightful for the children. Surely our ideas 
about our home state should have pleasant and delightful associa¬ 
tions. When you can’t feel that way, postpone California and give 
a lesson on the multiplication table instead. 

It is an easy thing to teach children to make an outline map of 
California in half a minute. Do this. Then in subsequent work, 
a hundred times and more, have the children spend a minute in 
drawing the outline and locating upon it the interesting things you 
are thinking about. It clarifies their ideas and gives them a habit 
of definite thought. Fill yourself full of California, by reading, by 
conversation, by travel, so that you will have something to teach, 
and then teach it witli delight and enthusiasm, else the children will 
be immune. Many famous people have written of California,— 
John Muir, Bret Harte, Mark Twain, Mary Austin, Helen Hunt 
Jackson, 1 R. II. Dana, Clarence King ; Jack London, Robert Louis 
Stevenson, — history, novel, poem, magazine, newspaper, abound in 
California lore. Make some of it yours. Keep your eyes open. 

So order your life that gladly you can learn and gladly teach. 
Then everything will come out all right. 

EDWARD IIYATT. 

1 Fig. 615. 

645 


NOTE TO THE TEACHER 

After going over this Supplement, it will be found that many 
important interests and localities have been treated slightly, or per¬ 
haps not even touched at all. This is unavoidable in covering such 
a large and varied subject in so few pages. Let no one waste time 
01 energy in pointing out omissions or weaknesses ; rather, let the 
teacher use common sense and enterprise in getting together supple¬ 
mental material for rounding out and strengthening the bare bones 
of the outline wherever necessary. 


DRAWING MAP OF CALIFORNIA 

- P ROBABLY the teacher has a plan of her own for drawing an outline map 
ot California quickly and simply. If not, here is a simple way: — 

Dr “ w f horizontal line AB, of any length, suitable to the space to be 

filled. Probably you will not use these letters with the children, but only in 
seeing the plan yourself. 

(2) From B let fall a perpendicular to C, as long as AB. 

rn /!' iagine ! he lme AC aud extend it in the same direction to D, making 
CD about twice as long as A B. ’ © 

/nip™ 1 D draw the Colorado River southward, about two thirds as long 
as An (to B). a 

to J r<> Fl0m E draW a llorizontal westward, about two thirds as long as AB, 

(8) From A to F draw the crooked coast line, approximately parallel to the 
eastern line of the state, BCE. ^ uie 

(7) Put in Lake Tahoe at the elbow C; San Francisco Bay nearly opposite 
on the coast; put m the Sierras and Coast Range by single broad strokes of 
I-encil oi ciayon; and then the two great rivers; when behold! there is Cali- 
oima, in a minute and less. Practice on this in concert until it is fixed in the 
minds of the children, and until yon see how much the time can be reduced It 

7^ ^ lf yo ’’ mana S e !t ri^t and don’t overdo it. It puts something 
definite in the mind to build your later work upon. g 


54 G 


CONTENTS. 


Aside to the Teacher 
Note to the Teacher 
Drawing Map of California 
Notes and Lists of References 
A Genera i. View of the State 
The Coast Region 
The Great Valley Region 
The Sierran Region 
Southern California 
Dairying .... 
Agriculture .... 
Fruit Growing .... 
Forests and Lumber 
Mineral Products 
Manufacturing .... 
Transportation .... 
Earthquakes .... 

History. 

Education. 

Government .... 

Cities . 

Last of All 


General Questions 
% 

Summary 
Products 

Population of California, 1850 to 1900 
Cities and Towns of 2000 or More People; Census of 1 
Height of Some of the Important Mountain Peaks 

The Counties of California. 

Geographical Names 


00 


Index 


page 
. 545 

. 546 

. 546 

. 548 

. 551 

. 554 

. 565 

. 570 

. 582 

. 589 

. 592 

. 599 

. f>08 

. 612 

. 618 

. 620 

. 623 

. 624 

. 627 

. 632 

. 634 

. 635 

. 636 

. 638 
. 638 
. 639 
. 639 
. 640 
. 641 
. 642 

. 645 


37—A a 


547 


















NOTES AND LISTS OF REFERENCES 


FOR USE IN STUDYING THE GEOGRAPHY OF CALIFORNIA 

The geography lesson must be alive with a reality and a crisp freshness 
such as no scanty text treatment can supply. It must have the wealth of detail, 
the vividness of outline, that supplementary material alone can bring. Pictures, 
chalk diagrams and sketches, specimens, curios, stories, poems, and supplementary 
reading are of the essence of success in geography teaching. If your school is 
poor in such illustrative matter, enrich it. If it is still poor, be rich your¬ 
self. A few dollars’ worth of books; some pictures cut from railroad circulars, 
board of trade pamphlets, magazine advertisements and catalogs; a handful of 
specimens of our common rocks—granite, basalt, sandstone, quartz; specimens 
showing commercial processes; occasional sketch maps and diagrams upon the 
blackboard ; a few simple models, e.g. Chinese rocker, oil derrick, snowshed, dry¬ 
ing trays, — preferably made by your pupils; a fund of stories, experiences, and 
anecdotes; a few poems of Bret Harte and Joaquin Miller; and fresh supplemen¬ 
tary reading for your class, or, at any rate, for yourself : these properly sprinkled 
through the work will make each lesson a rich, living experience to your pupils,— 
and to you. 

The following books are suggested as of first value to your school library for 
use by the pupils. If enough of them are not there to keep the work fresh, and 
if you cannot secure them through your school board, get a few of them to start 
with for your own library, as part of your teacher’s outfit. Then add others as 
necessity demands and permits. It will prove as good an interest-bearing invest¬ 
ment as you ever made. 

Carpenter : Geography Readers. 6 vols., each 60 cents. American Book Co. 
Companion Series : 7 vols., each 50 cents. Perry Mason Co. 

Herbertson : Descriptive Geography from Original Sources. 6 vols., each 75 cents. 
Macmillan. 

George : Library of Travel Series. 10 vols., each 50 cents. Flanagan. 

King: Picturesque Geography Readers. 5 vols. (Home and School, 50 cents; 
This Continent of Ours, 3 vols., each 56 cents; Northern Europe, 56 cents.) 
Lee. 

Youth’s Companion Series : 7 vols., each 25 cents. Ginn & Co. 

World and its People: 10 vols. (Our Own Country, 50 cents; American Neighbors, 
60 cents; Modern Europe, 60 cents; Asia, 60 cents; Africa, 60 cents; Aus¬ 
tralia and the Islands of the Sea, 68 cents; Hawaii and its People, 68 cents; 
South America, 60 cents; Philippines, 60 cents; Porto Rico, 60 cents.) 
Silver, Burdett & Co. 

Ballou : Footprints of Travel. 80 cents. Ginn & Co. 

Beal : Information Reader No. I. 60 cents. Boston School Supply Co. 

548 


NOTES AND LISTS OF REFERENCES 


549 


Bradish : Stories of Country Life. 45 cents. American Book Co. 

Carpenter: Industrial Reader—Foods. GO cents. American Book Co. 
Chamberlain: How we are Fed, How we are Sheltered, How we are Clothed, How 
we Travel. 40 cents each. Macmillan. 

Clifford : Information Reader No. II. 60 cents. Boston School Supply Co. 

Chase and Clow: Stories of Industry. 2 vols., each 40 cents. Educational Pub¬ 
lishing Co. 

Carroll: Around the World. 3 vols., each 50 cents; Silver, Burdett & Co. 
Fairbanks: Home Geography. 60 cents. Educational Publishing Co. 

Fairbanks : Western United States. 60 cents. I). C. Heath & Co. 

Johonnot: Geographical Reader. $1.00. American Book Co. 

Kirby: Aunt Marthas Corner Cupboard. 35 cents. Flanagan. 

McMurry: Type Studies from the Geography of the United States. 50 cents. 
Macmillan. 

Parker: Information Reader No. III. 60 cents. Boston School Supply Co. 
Rocheleau : Products of the Soil, Minerals, Geography of Commerce and Industry. 
50 cents each. Flanagan. 

Roth : First Book of Forestry. 75 cents. Ginn & Co. 

Rupert: Geography Reader. 65 cents. Leach, She well & Son. 

Sexton : Stories of California. 60 cents. Macmillan. 

Stoddard: Lectures —California; Grand Canon; Yellowstone. $3.00. Balch. 
Williams: Romance of Modern Engineering. $1.50. 

Bandini: History of California. 75 cents. American Book Co. 

The following geographical material is at your hand for the asking, prepaid; 
or, in a few cases, at the cost of its publication. All of it will prove of value 
to the teachei, and most of it may be placed in the hands of eighth grade pupils. 
Literature concerning almost any section or resource of California may be 
obtained free from the State Board of Trade, Ferry Building, San Francisco; 
California Promotion Committee, San Francisco; or the Chambers of Commerce 
and Boards of I rade of the various cities and counties of the state. Especial 
attention is called to the publications of the California Promotion Committee and 
the California State Board of I rade. 1 he annual bulletins and occasional 
circulars of these organizations should be in each teacher’s hands. 

These bulletins and reports contain the geographical lore of our state and 
its industries that the great, wide world cares about. They are alive with the spirit 
of enterprise and progress. From them we can catch the hum of the busy workers. 

Reports and Bulletins of State Officers and Organizations 

California State Board of Trade: Annual Report, 1908 —California Resources and 
Possibilities (Free) ; Circular No. 8 — Dairying in California (Free). Address, 
Ferry Building, San Francisco. 

California Promotion Committee: California Annual, 1907; 1908 (Free); Poultry 
in California, 5 cents; Dairying in California, 5 cents; Intensive Farming in 
California, 5 cents; Rainfall Map of California, 2 cents; Thermal Map of 
California, 2 cents. 

California State Agricultural Society : Report, 1907. (Free.) Secretary of State, 
Sacramento. 


55 0 


NOTES AND LISTS OF REFERENCES 


California State Mining Bureau : Annual Bulletin, No. 49. (Free.) Ferry Build¬ 
ing, San Francisco. 

Commissioner of Public Works : Report containing Report of the Dabney Commis¬ 
sion on the Reclamation Problem, 1905. (Free.) Secretary of State, Sacra¬ 
mento. 

Debris Commissioner’s Report on Reclamation Work and the Swamp Land Problem, 

1907. (Free.) Secretary of State, Sacramento. 

United States Geological Survey : The topographical maps of the Geological Survey 
are very interesting and valuable. They are printed in quadrangles, costing 
about five cents each. Each school should have at least the quadrangle 
including its own district; and the teacher with her pupils should study out 
the way to use it in traveling about, in finding new roads, in understanding 
the surface of the surrounding country. Address United States Geological 
Survey, Sacramento, California. 


Several California railroads issue pamphlets dealing with scenic and economic 
aspects of our state. See what your local agent can secure for you. Above all, 
the national government, through the Department of Agriculture, has prepared 
for you a rich supply of supplementary matter, much of it of popular interest and 
non-technical in its expression. Write to the Department of Agriculture, Wash¬ 
ington, D.C., for list of bulletins and circulars on hand for distribution bearing 
on farming, forestry, irrigation, and stock raising. You will find many of them 
of real value, especially the bulletins on forestry. This subject has been better 
and more simply treated in our government publications, which you can have for 
the asking, than in any other series, however costly. 



Fig. 515. 

The Home of Ramona, Camulos, Ventura County. 











RELIEF MAP OF 




OXEGOJV 


CALIFORNIA 

BY 


S o 

MILES 

* tQO 


lt«» 


*r 


N. F. DRAKE 

taotH * MXi. 

MM tamnrff. 


Pi *•/»• 




ISSUED BY THE' 

CALIFORNIA STAFF MINING BUREAU 

LEWIS E. AUBURY 

5l«U Mincraloiut 

A/m of California, * 153 650 14 mile* 
“ 10 other SUIei. 163,130 o^jnlles 




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Fig. 519. 

The Pick ” of Southern California 








GEOGRAPHY OF 


CALIFORNIA 


A General 


View of the State 


( alifornia is the largest state in the Union except Texas. Its 
coast line is a thousand miles long and its width is about two hun¬ 
dred miles. Its area is greater than that of New York, Ohio, New 



space but a little larger, 
while Great Britain and 
Ireland with a population 
of forty millions could be 
dropped down within the 
borders of California, and 
room left for a good-sized 
state besides. 

The surface of Cali¬ 
fornia varies in elevation 
from three hundred feet 
below the level of the sea 
in its desert basins, up, up 
to more than fourteen thou¬ 
sand feet above the sea in 
its lofty mountains; and its 
climates range at the same 
time from torrid heat (Fig. 

521) to arctic cold (Fig. 

520). In its southeastern 
corner the rainfall is prac¬ 
tically nothing; while in the opposite northwestern corner it rises 
to more than one hundred inches per year (Fig. 553). Its lati¬ 
tude reaches from that of Boston, away south to that of Georgia. 
It is washed by the greatest of oceans (Fig. 522) on the west, and 
is against the interior of a vast continent on the east. A bewildering 
complexity of mountains and valleys covers its surface, each having 



Fig. 520. 

Winter sport — Mountain Region. 


551 




GEOGRAPHY OF CALIFORNIA 


OO’J 


an influence upon the direction of the winds and the distribution 
of the moisture and the heat. 


The valleys are of all sizes, from the tiny one that affords a foot¬ 
hold for only one family, up to the Great Valley of California, more 
than four hundred miles long and fifty miles wide, and able to 
support a population of millions. 

All this makes our state the most varied and wonderful one of all. It 
brings about strange differences in surface, soil, crops, trees, animals, 



minerals, and in the 
occupations of men. 
It makes California a 
difficult thing for us 
to grasp as a whole, 
almost impossible to 
think about all at once. 
So let us make several 
bites of our cherry by 
roughly dividing the 
state into regions each 
more or less unlike the 
other; then talk about 
them and think about 
them one at a time. 

If we were in a 
balloon high up over 
California, the thing we 
should notice first would be the fact that our ocean shore, our smaller 
mountain ranges, our great valleys, our long rivers, and our higher 
mountain chains are ail parallel to each other, all extending north¬ 
westerly by southeasterly. We should notice, too, that the eastern 


Fig. 521. 

Sport all the year round — Southern California. 


and western mountain ranges curve together at the southern and 
northern ends of the Great Valley, and that the southern end of the 


state is a region of mountains and valleys running this way and that 
in all directions (hig. 516). We should see, therefore, three long 
and narrow strips or regions running lengthwise of the state, and a 
fourth region south of these with its mountains and valleys tumbled 
about in considerable confusion. Thus we should find: (1) the Coast 
region, containing the slope to the ocean and the Coast Range 
mountains and valleys; (2) the Great Valley Region, from the Coast 
Ranges to the base of the Sierra Nevadas; (3) the Sierra Region, 




A GENERAL VIEW OF THE STATE 


553 


containing the great Sierra Nevada Mountains; and (4) Southern Cali- 
forniii, made up of all the state south of the Tehachapi Mountains. 
Of course we must understand that these regions are not very definite 
and that they cannot be very accurately mapped, and that they differ 
within themselves. This is merely an offhand way of dividing the 
state so that we can think of one part of it at a time. Now°for a 
view of each of the regions, and then we shall be ready for the stories. 



The Pacific Ocean — Point Loma in tlie distance. 
“ Old Ocean’s gray and melancholy waste — M 


the pictures, the books, the songs, the specimens, the observations, 
cind the tru\els about ( alifornia that will really give us a knowledge 
of our state and an appreciation of all the wonderful and interesting 

O 0 

things that it contains. 

Note to Teacher. — Some of our best geographers divide California into 
seven regions or provinces, using the four above given, but calling the 
northern Coast Range the Klamath Province , the northern Sierras the 
Volcanic Plateau , and the southeastern region the Desert Province. Most 
teachers will find the simpler division handier and more workable for class 
use. 

QUESTIONS 

(1) Mention some interesting facts about the size of California; its extremes 
of altitude; of rainfall. (’2) 4\ hat is the direction of the great mountain ranges? 
(3) Why do we divide the state into regions? Name and describe them. (4) 
Point out on the Relief Map the four regions. (5) What terminates the Great 
Valley Region in the north ? In the south ? (6) How do the physical features of 
the state bring about differences in its productions and the industries of the people? 






554 


GEOGRAPHY OF CALIFORNIA 


GENERAL QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 

(1) Describe the main features of California as shown on the ltelief Map. 
(2) Draw its outline and show the principal river systems. (3) What is the most 
important watershed? Describe the drainage. (4) Show on your map the 
mountain ranges, indicating where the highest mountain j)eaks are found. (5) 
Outline the Mojave and Colorado deserts, and locate Death Valley and the Salton 
Sea. (b)^ V hy was it very hard to reach California before the railroads were 
built(7) W hat would be the best road from San Francisco to Nevada? (8) 
Point out on the map the best way to drive from your home to San Francisco. 

( 9 ) Has the relief of California influenced the course of the railroads ? (10) Where 

is the heaviest rainfall in California? The lightest? (11) What is the usual 
rainfall of the region in which you live ? (12) In what part of the state are there 

many lakes? lew lakes? Why? (13) Suppose the mountain ranges ran east 
and west, what would be the effect on the coast line ? On the climate? (14) If 
California should sink one thousand feet, where would its coast line be ? Draw a 
lough outline of it. (15) Would your home be submerged by the sea ? (16) 

Find by the map the width and length of California in miles. ’ 

The Coast Region 

I lie Coast Region consists of the mountains near the sea,_the 

Coast Ranges, — the slope between them and the ocean, and all the 
valleys nestled among the hills and along the rivers in this long, 

broken mountain strip (Fig. 516 ). The higher summits reach eight 

«► 



Eig. 523. 


Looking down the Strait of Carquinez. 



















THE COAST 11 EG ION 


555 


or nine thousand feet in altitude. The whole mountain mass is cut 
through by Carquinez Strait (Fig. 523). South of this is Mt. Diablo 
Range, separating the Santa Clara Valley from the Great Valley 
Region. 1 his is the landmark used as a starting point by the 
surveyors in measuring and describing all the land in the central 
part of the state. Mt. San Bernardino is similarly used for the 
Southern Region (Fig. 537). 

In this region the west wind blows the most of the year. It 

V 

brings to the land the water which it lias picked up in passing over 



Fig. 524. 

Ocean fog pouring over the hills into San Francisco Bay. 


the sea, and so fogs (Fig. 524) in summer and rains in winter make 
the climate moist and cool. This narrow strip is the only region 
in the whole of North America and one of the few regions of the 
whole world where the weather is neither very cold in winter nor 
very hot in summer. This, too, is due to the west winds, which take 
their mild temperature from the sea in passing over it and then 
blow in to the land, keeping our coast warm in winter and cool in 
summer. A cool ocean current flows off the shores, and this, too, 
affects the west wind and the fogs. 

Our harbors are few. This is because the mountain ranges run 
nearly lengthwise with the coast, instead of sticking out crosswise 
into the sea. Best of all these harbors is San Francisco (Figs. 525, 
526), a noble and lordly bay, so large that all the navies of all the 








550 


Ferry Building, foot of Market Street, San Francisco, showing electric cars passing around the loop. San Francisco Bay, ferry 
boats, ocean vessels, and Goat Island in the distance. Notice the activities of commercial life. Write a description of 
what you see in this picture. 















































Anselnu? 

tlan 

(Mill Viallc)^ 




s o yo\M a 


Tp 1 A c 


.Novato! 


‘iX 

tv' 

Ignacio^ 


illinot Cr 1 


M A 


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I (f GRIZZLY I 6 LANO 

v ia»to*<A. 


Ss> 


San 


Navy Yard 
Ol*tr\'atury\ 
Make island 

Pablo 


T 'g 

Vallejo -i- 


S. Vallejo 


Bay, 


& 


Crocks 


< 5 ? 


yiicv 


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i x\w 7 ^ 

ySan Pedro 
Tafae I ,/ 


Rodec 


Port Cost<r 


Luzdl 


ir total 






f '*Ol 


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llant 


Lblo 




Pt.San _, v -. r - 

Quentin Sta 

an Quentin I 

rkspur .. . 

Point 

. Richmond 

Mill y“de> ron 


ild) 


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BROOKS I. Vy 


< Concord 

O S T 

Walnut 


Clafoon 

A Y~ 


0 SkOrnlda Lafayette ft n r .. 0 i, 

' %xX<Or»Mg Park » CreCK. 


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Sta.) 

Bryant 


DuuvilleS 


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I 

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.Mel dose 

‘Mills College 


Yf™ 

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i Colraa 


Elmhurst' 

San'Tjeafrdrt^N ' u ^/'Lake 

'habot 


l Union 


V 

Dougherty 


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F tancisco, • ■ 


lladcu -^tuTy*. >- 'pt.Sair Bruno\ 


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Sati^ 

Pt.San Pedro-n-l Andreas , 

^ 'f\v/ £X CS 

❖ 


Librae 


'y o 


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\::'l lay wartft 

W \ ■'dSl lay wards Sta), 

iY$\a i\a 3 i r; 

vcA Xml 

\E(lon N 

\ Ilecoto 


D A 


°t.San M.ateo-Se’j. 

'\ Ni 


WVs 


.o'ti 


*7c<; 




Pt.Montara., 

o 

Pillar Pt.< 

Half Moon Bay'S 

Half Moon Ba^ 


.San MntcdyX 

' k"\ 

A? 


.1 Belmont 

£{ 

( Crystal Springs 
\\LaU 


Ceijjerville ] 


Xit 


sNowark' 






S A N 


31 A 


I y? 

^Redwood Ci't\ 


Irviupton* 

MisAion 
Saii\Jt>M‘ 


TXE q 


it 


«i, 


V Meulo i’aikV^^’V 

- ^FSpalo Alt 

Sta t^l'urd\M a jdi'old 
Vn i ter si I y \ / 

SAN FRANCISCOi s ^ 7 . 

i Moumtain View-X^. 


f^yVT^ \ X A/ 

MO WarlnAp^^nl;s\•® 
Vo 


-7 a/ 


r VI 


and vicinity 

Places are displayed same 
as on General Map 


i 


visa’ 

- p ~ y. MirpitasA 

C lAXlUA 

Agnew* 

pac. 


\ 


y Jt 


SCALE OF MILES 
-r- 


P 1 2 3 4 6 


lo 


\ 


Lawrence 

SanLi Clara 

S«ii Jose ' 


UL. FOATU in#* 1 # CO., K-Y. 


Kin. ffifl. 






























Museum, Golden Gate Park, San Francisco. 



Midwinter in Yosemite Valley 








THE COAST REGION 


557 


world at once could ride at anchor within its shelter. Its pres¬ 
ent shape was caused by a slow lowering of the coast in ancient 



Fig. 527. 

llie largest ferry boat in the world — Solano — crossing Strait of Carquinez. 

Capacity, four average size trains. 


times, enough to let the sea flow into what was the lower valley of a 
great river of California, the united Sacramento-San Joaquin. This 



Fig. 528. 

“The Golden Gate” from San Francisco Bay. One mile wide. 


great river flowed down through Carquinez Strait (Fig. 523), down 
through the valley that is now the bay, and poured its yellow tide 












558 


GEOGRAPHY OF CALIFORNIA 


into the blue sea through the Golden Gate (Fig. 528). Now, how- 
ex ei, the lower valley is under water, and is called a drowned valley. 
Jt makes a vast system of bays and inland waterways leading away 
up into the very heart of the state. Here around San Francisco Bay 



Fig. 529. 

San Diego Bay, Coronado Beach on the right, city of San Diego in the distance. 


center the activities of the state. Here the commerce of the world 
passes from the high seas to the interior of our rich land. Here 

the people and the products of the land find easy means of passing 
out to all the world. 

San Diego Bay (Fig. 529), Monterey Bay (Fig. 531), and 
Humboldt Bay (Fig. 532) are beautiful harbors, too. San Pedro 


Fig. 530. 

San Pedro Harbor. 



(Fig. 530) is the chief harbor for Los Angeles, 
haibors still, but these are the principal ones. 


There are other 












•+o 



FELTON) 

JBig Tkek£ ^ 


lOMA Prk 

c f~rC 


hr'W&rj 


''XTsom^J.E 
\ I , USDBS N 


TEREY BAY 
VICINITY® 


'ONA X 


iAUXA 

Rlanc^v 


lIGLINGS 


aside 

'Hotel D&. Monte 


Carmel in' the Sea 

' GfRMEL MtoStoN 


Fig. 531. 


551 ) 
























































* 


SAMOA 


FAIR haw 




TABLF BLUFF/fiGHT 







mNbOCINO ok I IGHT House 


Fig. 532. 

Humboldt Bay and vicinity. 


560 







THE COAST 11EGI0N 


5(31 



California s islands, like its harbors, are few; and for the same 

reason. If the ends of the mountain chains ran out toward the sea, 
many submerged hills 
would raise their heads 
above the water as islands. 

Off San Francisco are the 
Farallone Islands (Fig. 

51T), a little chain marking 
the tip-top summits of the 
most western ridge of the 
Coast Ranges, about thirty 
miles off shore. Between 
these and the shore the 
water is comparatively 
shallow; but outside it 
goes down at once to the 
depths of the deep sea. 

Within San Francisco Bay 
are several small islands 
used by the United States 
government: Alcatraz is a 
military prison and a fort; 

Goat Island, almost within 
touch from the ferry in 
crossing from Oakland to San Francisco (Fig. 52 b), has the naval 
training station; the government has a navy yard located on Mare 


Fig. 533. 

United States steamship Bennington in dry dock at 
Mare Island navy yard. 













562 


GEOGRAPHY OF CALIFORNIA 


Island. (Pig. 533),*and Angel Island is used as a quarantine station 
(Pig. 52b). Off Santa Barbara and Ventura counties are the Santa 



Fig. 535. 

United States cruiser California. 


Barbara Islands (Fig. 534). Santa Barbara Channel (Fig. 537), 
between these islands and the coast, is used by the federal' govern- 

ment to test the war vessels 
(Figs. 148, 535) built on 
the Pacific Coast before 
accepting them from the 
contractors. Near San Luis 
Obispo are the San Luis 
Buttes, a succession of bold 
hills which terminate in 
u Morro Rock,” a bare, 
rocky island rising to an 
elevation of about 600 feet 
(Phg. 536). 

Capes, like harbors and 
islands, are few. Why? 
he most noticeable, perhaps, are Cape Mendocino on the rock- 
bound northern coast, and Point Conception (Fig. 537) in the south. 



Fig. 53d. 
Morro Rock. 











San Bernardino Mountains in midwinter. Oranges ripe in the valley below. 



State Industrial School, Whittier. 















r- y-s 

»o 

o 






























































































Fio. 5.‘*8. 


Bathing at Long Beach — Pleasure pier and casino. 
38—a G 6f>3 





















Fig. 53!). 


A bit of Lakeport on Clear Lake. Mt. Konocti, or •< Uncle Sam,” in the distance, rising 

4240 feet in height. 


come in summer time to drink or bathe in their waters. At on 

p ace five springs are found within a few feet of each other, and eacl 

of a different water. One is of clear, almost ice-cold mountaii 

spring water, while another just at hand supplies strong minera 

water steam ng hot Soda Bay, a shallow arm of beautiful Clea 

aive (1 ig. 5d9), is ted by soda springs in the bottom of the lake 

One of these springs gushes up a foot or more above the level of tin 

lake, and people go out in boats to drink the fine soda water i 
supplies. 

The pleasure resorts on the beaches of the Coast Region are remark 


GEOGRAPHY OF CALIFORNIA 


South of Point Conception the coast line swings away to the east. 
Going inland from this point, we find the high Tehachapi Mountains 
limning crosswise and forming a natural boundary between Southern 
California and the rest of the state. South of this line the rainfall 

becomes lighter, the natural vegetation scantier, the climate dryer 
and milder. 

Mineral springs of various sorts are found in many parts of the 
Coast Region. In Lake County there are thousands of them. Health 
resorts have been established near many of these springs, and people 




KM I m 







TUE GREAT VALLEY REGION 


565 


<il>le (Pig. 538). Ihe people Hock to them in the summer time to 
enjoy the cool sea breezes, the surf bathing, the fishing, boating, and 
swimming that the salt water affords. Among the most famous 
points are Santa Cruz, Monterey, Pacific Grove, Pismo, Santa Bar¬ 
bara, Ocean Park, Huntington Beach, Santa Monica, Newport, Long 
Beach, Santa C atalina, and Coronado. An imaginary trip to one 
or more of these places might be made a jolly summer lesson by the 
geography class. 


QUESTIONS 

(1) Is the Coast Region mountainous or level? Describe its general features. 
(~) What strait cuts through it ! (3) What mountain south of the strait? 
Find it on the map of San Francisco and vicinity, Fig. 526. (1) For what is it 
used? What mountain in the south is similarly used? (5) What is the prevail¬ 
ing wind of the Coast Region i (6) Explain how this affects the climate. 
(7) 'Fell about the harbors. (8) Which is the best? How was it formed? 
Wfiat is a drowned valley? (!)) Mention three other important harbors. 
(10) Why are there few islands? (11) Describe the islands off the coast near 
San Francisco. Rear Santa Barbara. (12) hat islands in San Francisco Bay? 
For what is each used? (13) Name* two important capes. (14) What are pleas¬ 
ure resorts? (15) Name those best known on the coast of California. (16) De¬ 
scribe any of these resorts or natural springs that you may have visited. 


The Great Valley Region 

This might well be called the region of interior plains. The 
valleys are so large, reaching from the lesser mountains of the coast 
to the giant Sierra Nevadas (Fig. 540) on the east, and the slope is 
so slight, only a foot or two to the mile, that they appear like vast 
level plains when we travel about in them, not like valleys at all. 
We can think of them as valleys only when we remember how the 
water flows (Fig. 541) from them, and where the drainage goes. 
They are made by a broad downward bend of the earth's crust, not 
by erosion, as were the steeper valleys of the mountains. They are 
covered deeply with sediment, for they were once the floor of the 
sea ; and this is covered again by soil washed from the mountains 
and spread over the valleys by the rivers. They spread out into one 
of the largest and richest bodies of level land (Fig. 542) in the world. 
The northern part of this region is called the Sacramento Valley, 
the southern the San Joaquin Valley. To go from the Sacramento 
Valley northward into Oregon is difficult, for the Sierras and Coast 
Ranges come together as an elevated plateau about Mt. Shasta (Fig. 
6); and to go southward from the San Joaquin Valley is still more 


566 


GEOGRAPHY OF CALIFORNIA 


difficult, for the valley is rimmed by the Sierras and Coast Ranges 
coming together as the Tehachapi Range. The railroads wind 
through this tangled mountain mass by way of the Tehachapi Pass. 


The Tehachapi Loop is a famous piece of railroad engineering where 
the railroad crosses under itself through a tunnel. 

The whole Great Valley Region is an inland one. Therefore it 
has less of the west wind, and so less fog, less rain, hotter summers, 



Fig. 540. 

Kings River Canon— High Sierras. 


and colder winters than the Coast Region. It is for the most part 
treeless; although in the north there are splendid groups of oaks 
(Fig. 542) dotting the plains; and in the south are great groves of 
cottonwood (Fig. 543) and willow. In the southern end of the 
Great Valley is a group of broad, shallow lakes formed by the build¬ 
ing of deltas across the San Joaquin Valley by the larger streams 
flowing down from the mountains, such as the Kern, the Kaweah, 
and Kings rivers (Fig. 544). Thus crosswise dams were formed, 
behind which the drainage of the San Joaquin basin was caught in 
such stagnant, reedy, alkaline lakes as Tulare and Buena Vista. 
Moie and more the water that flows into these basins from streams 





)67 


Grove of oaks near Sacramento. A typical scene of the Interior Valley Region of Central California*! 













Fig. 543. 

Under the cottonwoods of Southern California. 



Fig. 544. 

Falls on Bubbs Creek — Kings River Canon. 


.A famous trout stream. 


568 














THE GREAT VALLEY REGION 


569 


and artesian wells. (big. 545) is being used for irrigation. Tulare 
Lake, once the largest sheet of water in the state, is disappear¬ 
ing and its rich sedimentary bed giving place to hundreds of 
splendid farms. Along the lower courses of the Sacramento and 
San Joaquin is an enormous 
body of overflowed land, 
called “tule land,'’ perhaps 
two million acres in extent. 

Small parts of it have 
been reclaimed by building 
levees about it, sometimes 
twenty or even thirty feet 
high. This reclaimed land 
is as rich as the famous 
delta of the Nile. It pro¬ 
duces wonderful crops of 
beans, onions, celery, and 
asparagus. The overflows 
are caused by the choking 
of the river channels by 
washings from the moun¬ 
tains. The “ slickens”from 
hydraulic mines form a 
large part of this deposit. 

When the winter rains 
come and the mountain 
snows melt, the choked channels cannot carry all the water. Then 
all the lowlands along the river are flooded. Think what a loss 
this is to the wealth of the state. A hundred laws have been passed 
concerning it; a score of long reports have been written by com¬ 
mittees : and twenty million dollars has been spent, here and there, 
first and last, in efforts to keep the water in the rivers where it 
belongs. But with all this, little has been accomplished. Little 
will be accomplished as long as each locality tries to keep dry by 
turning the flood waters off upon its neighbors. The remedy will 
only come from some great system of levees, dams, canals, and chan¬ 
nel improvements which will protect all parts of the overflowed 
section and store the winter water for summer use. This is a great 
undertaking, worthy of the best efforts of our state or of our national 
government. The time is surely coming when it will be done; and 



Fig. 545. * 

Artesian well, Kings County, 1858 feet deep—Hows 
eight and one half inches over the pipe. 





570 


GEOGRAPHY OF CALIFORNIA 


* 


then these lands, as rich as any in the world, will offer pleasant 
homes and productive farms to thousands of people. 


QUESTIONS 

(1) Describe the Great Valley Region. (2) How was it formed? (3) Why 
is it hard to get into Oregon from this region ? Into Southern California? 
(4) Is it easy to get to the ocean from this region? To go east into Nevada? 
(>)) Gompaie the climate with that of the Coast Region. (6) Describe the timber 
growth. (7) Describe the lakes in the San Joaquin Valley, telling where found 
and how formed. What is happening to Tulare Lake-? Why? (8) Where is 
the tule land? (0) What causes this overflow? How is the land reclaimed, 
and for what is it used? (10) How is this region drained? (11) Describe 
hydraulic mining. Wfhat is meant by “slickens”? (12) How do the overflows 
benefit the land? 

The Sierran Region 

The Sierra Nevada Mountains run lengthwise with the state along 
its eastern side. They were made by an upward bend of the earth. 



Fro. 546 


Fishing in the Kern River Canon. 

“ The river murmured over the pebbles, 
the pines faintly whispered, and that was all.” 


I he crest of this upward bend broke during ages past, and one 
edge of the break slipped up, the other down, by a long succession of ' 
httle shocks, a few feet at a time. The upturned western edges of 
the break are the present summits of the mountains. The western 









A 


TIIE SI ERR AN REGION 


571 


slope is long and gradual, down to the great valleys; the eastern is 

short and steep, almost overhanging the desert regions below and to 
the east. 

I lie region is one of rough mountains, of dashing streams (Fig. 
546), of splendid forests (Fig. 152), of yawning chasms (Fig. C), 
of lovely green meadows, of deep rocky canons (Fig. 540). In 



Fig. i>4 (. 

‘ In the days of old, the days of gold, the days of ’4'J.” 


the higher altitudes, lumbering and stock raising are the occupa¬ 
tions ; in the lower parts, mining and fruit raising. The Mother 
Lode is a great series of ledges of gold-hearing quartz, reaching 
from El Dorado ( ounty in the north to Mariposa County in the 
south. Jt is about one 
hundred miles long and 
from one to six miles wide. 

Mere is one of the famous 
mining regions of the world. 

In the canons and streams 
near it and derived from it 
were the rich placer dig¬ 
gings that brought Cali¬ 
fornia’s fame “in the days 
of old, the days of gold, the 
days of ’49” (Fig. 547). 

From a singleclaim twenty- 
four feet square was some¬ 
times washed more than 
$200,000 worth of gold by 
means of an iron pan about the size of a dish pan. Here, too, were 
the great hydraulic mines in which a powerful stream of water was 
sent through a nozzle, called a “giant,” to tear down and wash away 
the banks of the river and the steep hillsides (Fig. 136). The 



Fi(t. ms. 

Chinaman washing gravel for gold. 







572 


GEOGRAPHY OF CALIFORNIA 


gravel or placer r .ines are exhausted now, and most of the hydraulic 
mines are closed down. Quartz mining (Fig. 138) has developed 
in their place. Even yet, however, the children of Mariposa and 
Placerville sometimes find bits of gold in the streets after a heavy 
rain, perhaps worth a dollar or two; and a lone Chinaman (Fig. 548) 
may occasionally be seen working over again the piles of gravel that 
were washed by the older miners, so long ago. 

The greatest wealth of the Sierras, however, is not in its gold, but 
in its water. The streams dashing down its canons (Fig. 546) are 



Fig. 549. 


A Power House, where electrical power is generated from a mountain stream and sent far 
away to turn the wheels of industry and to run the cars in and about the cities of San 
Francisco Bay. Observe at the top of the hill the headgate where the water is admitted 
from the canal into the great pipes that lead it down under tremendous pressure to the 
wheels in the power house. Notice the force with which the water shoots from the 
wheels into the bed of the stream. 

This plant is at Colgate in Yuba County and belongs to the Pacific Gas and Electric 
Company. 


of great value now, and will be worth fabulous fortunes in the 
future. They will irrigate and make fruitful the farms and gardens 
for millions of people in the valleys below. They will supply pure, 






THE SI ERR AN REGION 


57 3 


cold drinking water for the valley cities. Already San Francisco 
and Los Angeles are taking steps to bring water from the Sierras to 
supply their people. The power generated from them (Fig. 549) 
will turn the wheels of industry and do the work of the state. 
There are many companies even now carrying the power of these 
swift rivers by means of electricity over many parts of the Great 
Valley and the Coast Region, and even out on the deserts of Nevada. 
Some of this power is used in cities one hundred and fifty miles 
from the power house (Fig. 550) away up in the Sierras where the 



Fig. 550. 

Interior view of the Edison Electric Power House, Kern River Canon. Power from this 
plant is furnished Los Angeles and surrounding cities of Southern California, 120 miles 
away. Notice the large dynamos which generate the electric current. 


water does the work. What a wonderful thing it is, and how inter¬ 
esting to learn about ! Just think of our getting our light and heat, 
power to run our mills and factories, and the electric cars (Fig. 551) 
which carry us up and down all over the land, from these untiring, 
ceaseless rivers over a hundred miles away from us ! We must guard 
these streams well. We must value them and see that they are 
used for the benefit of all the people of the future, not heedlessly 
given away to selfish speculators. 






















574 


GEOGRAPHY OF CALIFORNIA 




Fig. 551. 

Passenger coaches, Northern Electric Railway. Suburban train running between Sacra¬ 
mento and Chico. Notice the “ trolley ” on the top of car, used within city limits; 

“ third rail ” used in the country. Why ? 

These rivers depend in large measure upon the forests (Fig. 152) 
for their even, steady flow. The roots of the forest trees and the 

soil which they help to 
form and then protect 
from washing, and the 
bed of fallen leaves and 
branches which they 
build up, hold the water 
that comes from the 
heavy rains. Little by 
little, all through the 
year this water seeps 
down into the river 
channel or trickles out 
in the form of springs 
(Fig. 552). Thus the 
rivers receive a constant 
supply, and are able to 
do the useful work to 
which men put them. 
If the forests were de¬ 
stroyed, many of the 
valuable streams would 
run dry in summer time, 

Fig. 552. for the rainfall would 

Natural spring flowing from the mountain’s side. One quicklv run down the 
of the many at the headwaters of Sacramento River. 1 • 

The water is as clear as crystal and icy cold. naked hill and mOUll- 

























































































Virgin Forest. 

Sierra National Forest, Madera County, near Wawona, on road to Yosemite Valley. 


Destruction of forest due to logging and to fire. Stanislaus Nation Forest, Tuolumne 

County. 





















THE SI ERR AN REGION 


575 



tain sides. Thus we should lose not only our trees, but our streams, 
that mean so much to the prosperity of the state, would be dangerous 
tonents in winter time, bringing Hood and damage ; and in summer 
they would be dry gulches, barren and glaring in the hot sun. The 
l nited States government is trying to preserve our forests, and thus 
preserve our rivers, which rise on the wooded mountain sides. 
Millions of acres of timber 
land have been reserved as 
National Forests ( Fig. 553). 

This means that these for¬ 
ests have been set aside 
and cannot be taken up by 
private owners. Instead, the 
government places rangers 
(Fig. 554) in charge of 
them, to see that they are 
protected. Any one who 
wishes to cut timber oil 
these National Forests must 
first get permission and pay 
something for the privi¬ 
lege ; he must cut only the 
mature trees, and must not 
destroy the young trees or 
set fires. These National 
Forests are reserved by 
the government so that the 
forests may be used without 
being destroyed ; so that our children and our children’s children 
may have lumber in the years to come; so that these priceless rivers 
that irrigate the land and do the work in the valleys below may 
always add to the wealth of all the people. 

In the sheltered little valleys near the central and highest part of 
the Sierras, stand a few groves of the Big Trees, found nowhere else 
in the world. The Calaveras Grove, the Mariposa Grove (Fig. 152), 
the Tuolumne Grove, are well-known examples. The Big Tree is a 
cousin to the redwood of the Coast. Its botanical name is Sequoia 
Gigantea, while the redwood is Sequoia Sempervirens. Its lumber 
is very much like redwood, and is used for the same purposes. 
Large quantities of it are shipped to Germany to make lead pencils. 


Fig. 554. 

S. Forest Ranger — Santa Barbara National For¬ 
est. Rangers guard the interests of the Govern¬ 
ment by protecting the forests from tires and the 
timber from vandalism. 










576 


GEOGRAPHY OF CALIFORNIA 



Counting the rings of some of the great trees that have been chopped 
down, we find them to be over four thousand years old. Think of it ! 
They were already ancient trees when Christ walked the earth. They 
were already three thousand years old when Columbus discovered 
America, yet the man with an ax (Fig. 139) can destroy in a few 
days what has required all the centuries to grow. One of the larg¬ 
est trees is the Grizzly Giant (Fig. 555) in the Mariposa Grove. It 

is 35 feet in diameter and 
300 feet high. It is an 
interesting thing for a class 
to join hands in the school- 
yard and make a circle as 
big around as the Grizzly 
Giant: then try to imagine 
the circle filled with solid 
wood, a great column tow¬ 
ering to the sky. 

This central part of the 
Sierra Nevada Mountains, 
where the big trees are 
found, is known as the 
High Sierras (Fig. 556). 
It is a region of granite 
peaks and deep canons. 
No less than eleven of the 
summits are over 14,000 
feet high. The highest peak 
of them all, and the loftiest 
summit in all the United 
States, is Mt. Whitney 
14,501 feet high. One of 
the famous canons is Ike 
Yosemite (Fig. 557), on the upper Merced River. This is a wonder¬ 
ful gorge cut out by glaciers, with mighty, cliff-like walls of granite 
towering 3000 feet above the valley floor. Over these walls tumble 
a number of streams to join the Merced, making the highest water 
falls in the world. The famous Yosemite Falls (Fig. A) are over 
2600 feet high, making three successive plunges with short rapids 
between. We get a better idea of this height when we remember 
that Niagara is only 160 feet high. People come from all over the 


Fig. 555. 

“Grizzly Giant” — Has lifted its head toward the 
heavens for over four thousand years. 

“ My heart is awed within me when I think 
Of the great miracle that still goes on, 

In silence, round me.”— Bryant. 





THE SI EUR AN REG 10 X 


577 



Fig. 556. 


The Whitney Range of the High Sierras, called “ the 

how plainly the timber line 


roof of the United States.” 
is marked. 


Notice 



Fig. 557. 

A view of the floor of Yosemite Valley. Bridal Veil Falls on the right, Merced River in 
the foreground, El Capitan on the left, the perpendicular face of which is larger than 
a farm of 640 acres. 

“ God moves in a mysterious way His wonders to perform.” 















578 


GEOGRAPHY OF CALIFORNIA 


world to see this wonder¬ 
ful valley. Kings River 
(Fig. 540) and Kern River 
(Fig. 558), too, have mag¬ 
nificent canons similar to 
the Yosemite, but not so 
well known. 

* 

In the Sierras are many 
lakes formed by glacial 
action. Some are basins 
scooped out of the solid 
rock by the glaciers; 
others are formed from the 
damming of water courses 
by the moraines left by 
the melting glaciers ; still 
others are formed by the 
damming of valleys by 
lava flows. These beauti¬ 
ful Alpine lakes vary from 
clear, cold pools a few yards across up to matchless Lake Tahoe (Fig. 
559) 6225 feet above sea level, twenty-three miles long, thirteen miles 



Fig. 558. 

Looking down Kern River Canon. 



Fig. 559. 


U 


Matchless Lake Tahoe 
Mark Twain said, “ 


’’with the snow-capped Sierras in the distance. Forty years ago 
It must surely be the fairest picture the whole earth affords.” 






TI1E SI Elm AX REGION 


579 


wide, situated at the “ elbow ” of California and partly in Nevada. 

1 liese lakes are full of many kinds of trout, and offer rare sport to 
the fishermen (Fig. 5(30). 

They add greatly to the 
scenic attraction of the 
mountains. At Boca on 
the Truckee River is a nat¬ 
ural ice plant (Figs. 561- 
562). 

The High Sierra region 

(Fig. 556) has been called 

the roof of the United 

States, since it is the hio-h- 

© 

est place. It has been called 
the playground of America, 
since its canons, its forests, 
its peaks, its trout streams, its flower-spangled meadows, its cold 
lakes, its pure clear air, its crystal water, its wonderful scenery, all 



Fig. 560. 

Trout fishing on Lake Tahoe. 



Fig. 661. 

Cutting ice on the Truckee River. Notice the freight cars waiting to lie loaded with 

ice for market. Observe the dress of the workmen. 











580 


GEOGRAPHY OF CALIFORNIA 



go to make up an ideal region for an outdoor summer life. Along 
its cool trails and in its deep forests tired humanity builds up again. 
We should help along all patriotic efforts to preserve this great 

pleasure ground in its 
natural condition, as a 
precious treasure to 
pass along to our people 
of future generations. 
If we spoil it, destroy 
it, waste it, give it 
away, or permit it to be 
stolen from us, it can 
never be reproduced. 
Once gone, it will be 
gone forever. If we 
are cowardly or indif¬ 
ferent, it will all be 
seized by plunderers, 
who care only for them¬ 
selves, and who wish 
only to coin its trees, 
its grass, and its waters into ready money, to be carried off and 
spent, regardless of the loss that this would bring to the people 
of our ptate for all the years to come. 

The northern end of the Sierran Region flattens out into a vol¬ 
canic plateau, with occasional lofty peaks standing out alone, such 
as Mt. Shasta and Lassen Peak. This leads north into the Cascades 
of Oregon. The plateau occupies most of Modoc, Shasta, Siskiyou, 
and Lassen counties. The country is largely made up of lava and 
other volcanic rocks. The lava from Mt. Shasta is often carved into 
ornamental shapes and taken away by tourists as souvenirs. Hot 
springs abound. Shasta water is known all over the world, and is 
an important article of commerce. Underground streams are not 
uncommon. They come out from under the lava as great springs. 
One in Shasta County makes a whole river — Fall River, tributary 
to the Pitt. The latest volcanic activity of the United States was 
that about the base of Lassen Peak, perhaps less than a hundred 
years ago. Some very perfect volcanic cones are found with lava, 
ashes, and cinders, so recent that vegetation has not yet started to 
cover them. The trees burnt off are not yet rotted away. The 


Fig. 5(J2. 

A storehouse for ice. Notice how the men catch the large 
cakes of ice and work them over toward the tramway 
where they are caught and carried up into the store¬ 
house. Thousands of tons are stored in this manner in 
winter and kept for summer use. 




THE SIERRAN REGION 


581 


lava beds of Modoc County are well known as the hiding places of 
Captain .Jack and his band of Indians during the Modoc War of 
1873. It is interesting to note the mountain passes that have been 
so carefully chosen hy the engineers who built the transcontinental 
railroads eastward through the difficult Sierras. Farthest north. 



Fro. 5(53. 


Traveling by rail over the High Sierras in midwinter via Donner Pass. 


the Western Pacific chose the Beckwourth Pass. The Central Pa¬ 
cific occupied the Donner Pass (Fig. 563). In the south the Southern 
Pacific went through the San Gorgonio Pass, while the Santa Fe 
and the Salt Lake use the Cajon Pass. 


QUESTIONS 

(1) What is the Sierran Region ? (2) Tell how the Sierra Nevada Mountains 
were made. Why are they so steep on the eastern side? (3) What are the main 
industries in this section? (4) Where is the Mother Lode? IIovv long is it? 
(5) Ifow did the first miners in California work ? ((>) Describe quartz mining 

(p. 153). (7) Tell all you can about the value of the streams of California. 

How are they used? (8) Write a composition on the subject, “ Why our forests 
must not be destroyed.” (9) How is the government preserving the forests? 
(10) Tell about the Rig Trees. Describe their size and age. (11) Where are the 
High Sierras? Describe them. (12) Which is the highest peak in the United 
States? IIow high is it? How many peaks in the state are over 14,000 feet high? 
(13) Tell about Yosemite Valley. (14) Tell what you can of Kings River Canon; 
of Kern River Canon. (15) How do the lakes of this region differ from those of 
the Valley Region? How were they formed? (1(1) Describe Lake Tahoe. De¬ 
scribe the northern end of this region. Name two high peaks. (17) Can you tell 

39—A O 







582 


GEOGRAPHY OF CALIFORNIA 


something of the catting and storing of natural ice ? (Figs. 561, 562). (18) In 

what part of the region has there been recent volcanic activity? (19) Describe the 
lava beds, and tell for what they were noted. (20) Trace on your maps the four 
different routes taken by the railroads through the Sierra Nevadas. 


Southern California 



This region (Fig. 537) lies south of Point Conception and the 
Tehachapi Mountains. It is divided into an eastern desert portion 
and a fruitful western one by the Sierra Madre, a high mountain 

wall composed of the 
San Gabriel, San Ber¬ 
nardino, and San Ja¬ 
cinto ranges, with low 
passes between. This 
is the Southern repre¬ 
sentative of the Sier¬ 
ras, and is like them 
in plants, animals, and 
climate (Fig. 564), al¬ 
though the summits 
are not quite so high. 

The desert portion 
of Southern California 
is very large, about 
one sixth of the whole 
It includes the Mojave and Colorado deserts. It is divided 
into many bioad \alleys and basins by hundreds of mountains and 
ranges of mountains. Some of these are dry plateaus several thou¬ 
sand feet above the sea, while others are low sinks hundreds of feet 
below the sea, such as Death Valley and the Salton Sea. Nearly 
all moisture is cut off by the high mountains. A little rain falls 
and there is an occasional cloudburst; but the water is soon lost in 
the diy canons and the hot sands. The summer weather is very 
hot, sometimes 130 in the shade. Many a poor prospector or 
traveler ventures too far’into these wastes, and leaves his bones to 
bleach in the blazing sun. 

The broad level valleys of this region appear to be old lake 
bottoms dried up, or nearly so, since a time when there was a much 
gi eater rainfall. When these lakes are nearly dry, the water is 
heavily saturated with various salts and alkalis that have washed 


Fig. 564. 

Bear Valley in San Bernardino Mountains. How does the 
timber compare with that of the Sierra Nevada Moun¬ 
tains ? 

state. 



SOUTHERN CA LIFO It.XIA 


58a 


down from the neighboring highlands. When .the Salton Sea was 
c ry, a layer of pure salt a toot thick covered many square miles, and 
was worked for several years by a great salt company (Fig. 565). 



Fig. 565. 


Harvesting salt from the bottom of the Salton Basin before the overflow. The salt scraped 

up into piles is ready to haul to the mill. All this is now deep beneath the waves of 
Salton Sea (Fig. 567). 


A similar deposit is found in Inyo County. A layer of rock salt of 
unknown depth is found in San Bernardino County. From the water 
of (3wens Lake, carbonate 
of soda is extracted by 
evaporation (Fig. 566) and 
is shipped out to the world 
at the rate of two carloads 
per day. Some of the old 
lake bottoms near Death 
Valley yield borax, some 
soda, some niter, and some 
a mixture of these salts. 

The region is a chemical 
storehouse on a great scale. 

There are many interest¬ 
ing things to learn about 



Fig. 566. 

Owens Lake, Inyo County, showing soda evaporating 
basins, inclosed by banks of mud. The lake water 
is pumped into the basins and evaporated by the 
heat of the sun. 


it — fortunes in it for those who find out how to go and get them. 

Rich mines of gold, silver, copper, and lead are found on these 
deserts, and gem stones, such as turquoise and opal. Some people 
















584 


GEOGRAPHY OF CALIFORNIA 


think the deserts contain more wealth than all the fruitful country 
on the other side of the mountains. One of the most interesting and 



Fig. 567. 


Salton Sea, 253 feet below sea level, 36 miles 
long, 12 miles wide, 34 feet deep. Formerly 
from the bed of this sea was harvested thou¬ 
sands of tons of salt (Fig.-565). 


wonderful parts of the desert 
is the great area known as the 
basin of the Salton Sea (Fig. 
567). This was once the upper 
part of the Gulf of California, 
but was long ago cut off from 
it b} 7 the sand and mud brought 
down by the Colorado River. 
When the water dried up, an 
empire of dry, loamy land was 
left, in the shape of great 
plains that sloped very gradu¬ 
ally toward the bottom of the 
basin. A small lower part of 


the basin was not good soil, being covered with salt and sometimes 
with water by the breaking over of the Colorado. The interesting' 



r JG. obb. 

ibis beautiful artesian well gushes out of the parched and burning soil of the Colorado 
Desert, in the Salton Basin. The water is very pure and clear, and flows smoothly over 
the pipe and into the pool beneath with a gentle murmur, all in the verv place where 
men have died ol thirst. I his well has been sunk by some settler, who will clear 
away the greasewood brush, the mesquite trees, and reclaim a fertile little farm bv 
means of the stream from this murmuring fountain. J 







SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA 


585 


thing is that this part of the desert is even now being reclaimed 
and made to support its share of the human race. Of -course it 
is irrigation that does it. The high temperature and the rich soil 
are just the things needful for luxuriant plant growth, if water can 
be added to them. ' The western portion of the basin reaches the 
base of the San Jacinto and San Bernardino mountains, whose 
summits are high enough to catch rains and snows from the sea 
winds. This moisture flows down under the desert sands and comes 
up again in the artesian wells (Fig. 568) that are now being sunk 
on the desolate wastes where men formerly lost their lives from 



Fig. 5(!9. 

Headgate, Imperial Valley Canal, Imperial County. 


thirst. Each well reclaims a little farm from the grip of the desert; 
and thus the western end of this desert is disappearing. In the 
eastern end of the basin, toward the Colorado River, it was found 
a simple matter to take out canals (Fig. 569) from the river at 
the Mexican boundary, and irrigate the lands downward toward 
the bottom of the basin. 

Thus grew up the settlement called Imperial. Seven years ago 
not one single white man lived in the whole expanse. To-day there 
are towns and schools and railroads and electric lights and 12,000 
people ! It has been made into a new county, a county on the 
desert and below the level of the sea. Thus the eastern end of the 
basin is being changed from a desert waste to fruitful land. The 
Colorado is one of the great rivers of the continent. Perhaps its 
waters will yet wash the deserts of California entirely off the map. 
Here again lies work to do and fame and fortune to fight for. There 








586 


GEOGRAPHY OF CALIFORNIA 


is plenty of opportunity in the future for the thoughtful and 
courageous boys who are now so busy going to school. 

The crops in this basin are so much earlier than anywhere else 
that it might be called the hothouse of America. Cantaloupes and 



Fig. 570. • 

Cutting alfalfa for hay in December. Grown in Imperial County by means of irrigation. 


apricots ripen in May; grapes and peaches in June; hay can be cut 
in December (Fig. 570). Wonderful crops of barley, sorghum, 



alfalfa, melons, and 
vegetables are grown. 
This would be a fine 
place for another imag- 
inary journey, in which 
you would probably 
learn the striking story 
of how the whole tide 
of the Colorado River 
broke through (Fig. 
571) the Imperial Coun¬ 
try into the Sal ton 
Basin in 1905, and 
how it was stopped. 

Southern California 
west of the Sierra 
M ad re M o u n tai n s is 
one of the richest and 
most famous regions of 
the world. It is a strip averaging about sixty miles wide, broken 
up into many valleys (Fig. 572) by a multitude of hill and mountain 


Fig. 571. 

New River. Formed by the breaking through of the 
Colorado River and resulting in the making of the 
present Salton Sea, Fig. 507. Notice the large cracks 
on the river hank caused by the water washing away 
the soil. 









Fig. 572. 

An orange grove in a valley of Southern California. San Bernardino Mountains in the 

distance. 



Fig. 573. 

Irrigating an orange grove. 
587 











588 


GEOGRAPHY OF CALIFORNIA 


ranges. The rainfall though scanty is sufficient to form numerous 
rivers and streams and artesian basins. These have been carefully 
utilized for irrigation (Fig. 573), and have made a wonderful trans¬ 
formation of the whole land. It has often been said that water is 
like magic, and that at its touch the country blooms. People buy 
water rather than land. That is, the land is of no value unless there 
is water available to go with it. Thirty years ago the region was an 



Fig. 574. 

Spring Street, Los Angeles, during parade of naval officers, April, 1908. 


aiid sheep pasture, with a few sleepy Mexican villages scattered here 
and there. Now these eight southern counties contain a quarter of 
the people of the State. Los Angeles is second only to San Fran¬ 
cisco in size; and is a fine modern city (Fig. 574) with magnificent 
buildings, princely hotels, huge stores, and all that goes to make a 
city great. It is the center of a wonderful railroad and trolley 
tiaffic. Electric roads make a network over the whole land, con¬ 
necting scores of towns and cities. These southern cities are fa’mous 
for their beautiful homes (Fig. 575) and their splendid avenues. 
Their wide streets are paved or oiled to keep down the dust, and 











DAIRYING 


589 


are shaded by great trees. The homes are surrounded by lawns and 
shaded by vines and trees, and adorned by flowers (Fig. 154). It 



Fig. 575. 

A beautiful home in beautiful Pasadena. 


pa\s to make a country attractive and beautiful, so that visitors are 
pleased and people want to make their homes there. Orange groves 
in these choice localities are worth a thousand dollars per acre. 


QUESTIONS 

(1) What mountains cut off Southern California from the other regions? 
(*■) \\ hat mountains divide this region into two parts? (•>) IIow are these 
mountains like the Sierras? (4) Describe the eastern desert part. (5) Why is 
there little rain? ((5) Why is it dangerous to venture far out on the desert? 
(7) In what county is Death Valley? Salton Sea? (8) Why was salt deposited 
by Salton Sea? (0) How was Salton Sea formed? (10) IIow is this basin being 
reclaimed now? (11) Why is this region called a chemical storehouse? What 
minerals are found here? (12) IIow is the eastern end irrigated? (18) Why is 
there luxuriant growth of plant life here? (14) Tell what you can of Imperial 
County. Describe its crops. (15) IIow is the western end of this basin irrigated? 
(lb) What of the section west of the Sierra Madres? Name its largest cities. 
For what are they famous? (17) Why did Los Angeles grow to be the largest 

city of the south? (18) IIow is water secured in this section ? (10) Describe an 
artesian well. (20) Describe the homes of the southland. 


Dairying 

Dairying Ls the great industry of the Coast Region. The cool, 
moist climate provides plenty of green grass for the cows, and the 
weather is so mild that the dairyman does not have to build expen- 







590 


GEOGRAPHY OF CALIFORNIA 


sive barns and milking sheds to shelter his stock (Fig. 576). Every 
one says that California butter has the best flavor ; and this is no 



Fig. 576. 

A dairy ranch in California. Milking the cows out of doors in a corral. 


wonder when one remembers that the cows have green grass to eat 
almost the whole year round. Humboldt and Marin counties are 
especially known for their dairies. We must not think, however, 



Fig. 577. 


Milch cows feeding on the rich alfalfa pasture. 

that the. rest of the state produces no butter, for every county in 
California has some share, large or small, in this great business. In 
the irrigated districts of the Great Valley and the Southern Region 
the green alfalfa fields feed (Fig. 577) thousands of cows. Alfalfa 










DAIRYING 


591 



is a forage plant, be¬ 
longing to the clover 
family. It grows lux¬ 
uriantly (Fig. 578) in 
the sandy soils of the 
interior when irri¬ 
gated, and remains 
green a large part of 
the year. Splendid 
dairies are growing up 
in the Great Valley 
Kegion and in South¬ 
ern California,, depend- 


Fio. 578. 


Stacking alfalfa hay — Stockdale Ranch—Kern County. 
Grown by irrigation. 

ing upon alfalfa as fodder. This change made in the agriculture 
of a whole state by one small plant is a most interesting story. 
It is worth further study and inquiry. Mrs. Sherman, of Fresno 
County, proved that the interior could make as good butter as the 



• Fig. 579. 

University Farm Creamery, at Davis. Separators in upper picture; churns, and packing 
butter for market, in lower picture. What else do you see? 















592 


GEOGRAPHY OF CALIFORNIA 


Coast by taking the first prize at the State Fair a few years ago. 
Her prize tab of butter was made and shipped with the thermometer 
at 104°, so the greater heat of the interior does not prevent success. 

On some of the larger dairy ranches, the owner makes his own 
butter ; but more often he runs the fresh milk through a separator 
and then sends the cream by wagon or train to some creamery (Fig. 
579), where he is paid for it according to its richness. The skimmed 
milk goes to the hogs, calves, and chickens, and a thrifty dairyman 
will often make half as much from these as he does from his butter. 
A\ ith all our cows and dairies (Fig. 576), however, we should some¬ 
times have to eat dry bread if we did not import butter from other 
states. AVe are not yet able to supply our own markets all the year. 
Dairying is a profitable business. Many who started dairying a few 
years ago with nothing are now rich men, with land and stock, fast 
becoming the leaders of their communities. There is plenty of 
opportunity for California boys who are not afraid to get up early in 
the morning and work hard, and who are willing to learn how to 
take the best care of the stock and stick to the business. The best 
of it is that one can start in a small way, without much money. 

QUESTIONS 

(1) AA liy has the Coast Region been the most important dairying section? 
(‘2) Is the industry growing in other regions? Why? (3) Describe the alfalfa. 
(4) J ell w hat the farmer does with his milk. (5) Does California produce enough 
butter to supply her own markets? 


Agriculture 

Agriculture is by far the most important industry in the state. 
Agricultural products are ahead of those of any other industry. 
Cities, railroads, and business depend upon the farms. The future 
prosperity of the people rests upon the soil. Seeing this, it is inter¬ 
esting to remember that only fifty years ago it was believed quite 
generally that the country was practically worthless for agriculture, 
and that as soon as the gold was exhausted, the greater part of the 

population would go away, leaving only a barren, hopeless waste 
behind. 

Here is a word picture of the agriculture in one of the large 
valleys of the Coast ranges: “It is a pleasant sight to look down 
into one of these rich valleys from the hilltops surrounding it 
First, right beneath us are the rolling foothills where we see herds 


agriculture 


593 


ot cattle or flocks of sheep. Just beyond are vineyards and a crreat 
w me half of it built into the hillside. Farther out stretches 

the valley floor, dotted with its farmhouses. Spread out around 
the farmhouses are waving cornfields, hayfields in which men are 
at work, wide checkerboard blocks of grain just turning yellow, 
orchards with the fruit pickers busy under the trees, and hop fields 
overrun with vines trained high on wires stretched from the tops of 
poles. Over near the center of the valley is a busy little city. We 
can see its roofs and steeples half hidden by the shade trees lining its 
streets. Along the roads from all directions farm wagons are crawl¬ 
ing toward the town, carrying their fruit to the canneries, and their 
hay and grain and butter to the railroads for shipment to the big 
cities. A few years ago, when our fathers were boys, this valley 
was all one open field with herds of wild-looking cattle roaming 
through it, for it was then nothing but a great Spanish grant, and 
one man owned it all. Now it raises enough to feed many thousand 
people, and its products are so varied that we wonder how one cli¬ 
mate and one soil can produce them all. We are glad when we hear 
that many of the farmers and business men who have made' these 
farms and built this town are well to do; that they have good 
homes, some money in the bank, and their boys and girls in the 
schools. We feel that they have deserved to succeed.” 

Poultry and eggs for market are raised throughout the state; but 
1 etaluma is famous as the most important center of this industry. 



Fig. 580. 

A poultry farm near Petaluma. Notice the number of chicken houses in which the 

chickens roost and lay their eg^s. 


For miles around Petaluma stretch the poultry farms (Fig. 580), 
each a good-sized city of chickens. Hundreds of chicken houses 
may be seen from the road, all of them spick and span in clean 






594 


GEOGRAPHY OF CALIFORNIA 


whitewash. Ihousandsof chickens (Fig. 581) are scattered over 
the fields. Ihese chickens are hatched in incubators, several hun¬ 
dred at a time. Then 
they are turned into 
brooders (Fig. 582), 
where they are kept 
warm and given special 
food until they are 
able to go out and 
scratch for themselves. 
The poultry man is al¬ 
ways trying to improve 
his stock by keeping 
only the best layers. 
Careful chicken-raisers 
find that their hens pay 
them a dollar a year each in clear profits. You can see what such an 
income would mean to the owner of ten thousand chickens. Nearly 
every boy and girl in California, save in a few of the larger cities, 
is able to have a small flock of chickens in the back yard. If you 
find out what sort of chickens to get and then learn to take good 



Fig. 581. 

A flock of white leghorn hens. They did their share 
toward producing the 4,422,908 dozen eggs furnished 
the markets of the state from Petaluma alone. To 
supply the market in 1907, 10,854,000 dozen eggs were 
shipped iuto the state from the East. 



Fig. 582. 


Little chickens ‘‘Just out!” Hatched in an incubator. This shows them 
biooder, then foster mother; their empty shells are in the trays above. 


in the 


care of them, you will soon have fresh eggs of your own for break¬ 
fast, and perhaps an account of your own in the bank. At any rate 
you will be learning something worth knowing about the most 
general and one of the most important industries of the state 















agriculture 


595 


„ , I . n the ° reat Valle y Region and in the large valleys of Southern 
California the chief agriculture of the past has been the growing of 

grain (Fig. 583) and live stock: wheat (Fig. 141) and barley, horses, 
(tig. .»84), cattle, and sheep (Fig. 585). The land was owned in 




•ge ranches (Figs. 586, 587), from 
a thousand acres or less to a hun¬ 
dred thousand acres or more in 
each, often so large that it was a 
day’s journey to ride over one of 
them. The stock was turned loose 
to shift for itself on the range; the 
grain land was lightly scratched on 
the surface by gang plows, and 
depended upon the scanty rains for 
the crop. This was called “ dry 
ranching.” Under this system Cali¬ 
fornia became one of the great 
wheat regions of the world, shipping wheat and flour everywhere. 
Hut the poor cultivation and the continual repetition of the same 
crop exhausted the soil, and a change became necessary. The “ dry 
ranch ” system is changing to intensive farming or diversified farm¬ 
ing. This requires the breaking up of the great land grants into 
small holdings, the practice of irrigation, and a much denser popu¬ 
lation. Vegetables, alfalfa, pumpkins (Fig. 588), hogs, milch cows, 
poultry, berries, fruits, beans (Fig. 589), sugar beets (Fig. 590), take 
the place of the dry grain fields and bare ranges of the old system. 


Fig. 583. 

Hauling the grain to market. Four 
wagons, about 250 sacks of grain. 
One man driving with “ jerk line” a 
twelve mule team. What else do you 
see in the picture ? 













Fig. 584. 

A bunch of fine horses feeding in alfalfa pasture. 



Fig. 585. 

Sheep with their lambs in a valley pasture. 



Fig. 58(1. 


One of the largest ranches of Southern California, growing beans, hay, and grain Notice 
the beautiful country home, supplied with electric lights, gas, telephone, and all modern 
conveniences, large grassy lawn, flowers, and shrubbery about the house; large fields 
of beans in the distance. 45 


506 










597 


agriculture 



leams of a large ranch about to leave for work in the fields. The foreman „f *h a i 
in the wagon in the foreground; barns, blacksmith shop, tool house, on the left - ranch 
house in the distance; wagon and implement shed on he right, NotL how clean the 
barnyard is kept and everything in order. The men have good clean quarters and are 
dtlu best the market affords. Ihe horses and other stock are well fed and handled 
\ great kindness and care. Some of the finest work horses in the state are on this 

to stock demanded 0 ? ° f ^ ^ meanS 1088 ° f I>,>sition - Wh * * k ">dness 


I liis means greater opportunities 
for the farmer. For any one who 
will mix brains with his work, the 
intensive small farming of these 
great valleys offers rich rewards. 
Twenty acres of good land well 
irrigated and well managed will 
keep a family and make it prosper¬ 
ous. On many and many a little 
farm the owner clears a hundred 
dollars per acre each year. There 
are vast areas of land yet to be 
irrigated, divided into small tracts, 
and made into homes. The future 
wealth and prosperity of our state 
will largely depend upon the fruits 
of these irrigated farms in the in¬ 
terior valleys. Here is a great 



40—A o 




















598 


GEOGRAPHY OF CALIFORNIA 


chance for boys and girls who will learn how to take it. It offers a 
much safer, happier, and more independent life than a hand-to-mouth 



Fig. 589. 


Thrashing beans in Ventura County. The lima bean is grown almost exclusively in Southern 
California. Hundreds of carloads are shipped to eastern markets each year. 


existence on an uncertain salary in a town or city. These small 
farms and denser population make possible all the comforts and 
conveniences of life, and bring increased social advantages. They 



Fig. 590. 

Harvesting sugar beets. After the beets are removed, cattle or sheep are turned into the 
fieid to feed upon the beet tops. After the beets are run through a beet-sugar factory 
(Fig. 146) , and the sugar extracted, the pulp of the beet is put into silos and fed to stock. 

bung well-built houses, modern plumbing, electric lighting, free 
rural mail delivery, telephones, trolley cars, daily baker and butcher 
wagons, trim lawns, fine roads, 'good schools. With all this is the 







FRUIT GROWING 


599 


pure air, the bright sunshine, and the wholesome labor of the country 
Does it not look attractive when compared to the crowded, unhealthy, 
and anxious lives of most people in the cities ? 


QUESTIONS 

tr JP wT r 6 ! d ' pendent 0,1 the f arms? IIow is the opposite of this 

belief been ^ ^ ^ Worthl ^ ? has this 

t ia been ieluted (d) Give in your own words the word picture in the text 

^ ^ °r what is Petaluma, famous ? (5) Describe a chicken ranch. (8) What was 

oW U ? X 1C . UltUre ° f the X aIley Region in the P ;lst? (7) Why did it have to 
change . W hat is it now? (8) Compare city with country life. 


Fruit Growing 


The greatest development of intensive farming has been and will 
continue to be in the growing of fruits (Fig. 591). This industry 



Fio. 591. 


Harvesting the orange crop in midwinter. 


requires brains and education, and it yields rich rewards. No other 
state can here compete with California. 










Fig. 592. 


Hemet Dam, in the San Jacinto Mountains, thus the winter rains and snows in the moun¬ 
tains may be stored and used in summer to raise orchards and vineyards in the thirsty 
valleys far below. 



■ • 




Fig. 593. 

Wrapping oranges by machinery and packing them in boxes for shipment. 

600 













FRUIT GROWING 


601 



\\ herever we go, north, south, east, west, up into Canada or 
down into Mexico, we find California fruits in the market. They 
are larger and handsomer and earlier than any others. 

Most important of all are the citrus fruits, the orange, lemon, 
lime, and pomelo or grape fruit. The center of the orange industry 
is Riverside County (Fig. 592), which ships over 6000 carloads 

yeaiiy. San Rernardinp (1‘ig. 572) and Los Angeles counties 
also ship thousands of car¬ 


loads. Each car holds about 
300 boxes and each box 
over 100 oranges. The 
finest orange is called the 
Washington Navel. Thou¬ 
sands of people are engaged 
in raising it, and other 
thousands are packing it 
(Fig. 593) and selling it. 

It makes the chief industrv 
of Southern California. It 
is a splendid fruit, large, 
high colored, sweet, and 
juicy, with a delicious 
flavor. Moreover, it is 
entirely seedless and is so 
firm and strong that it 
stands shipment for thou¬ 
sands of miles. Important 
as it is now, it was dis¬ 
covered almost by accident. 

Over thirty-five years ago 
Mrs. Tibbetts wrote to the Department of Agriculture at Washington 
asking for some trees that would probably grow well in her garden 
in the little new settlement. It happened that the Department had 
on hand half a dozen orange trees that had been sent up from Bahia 
in Brazil, wrapped in wet moss. Two of them had died, but the 
other four were sent to Mrs. Tibbetts. She planted them, but one 
died from lack of water, and another was eaten up by a cow. The 
two remaining struggled along for several years until they bore some 
fruit. Immediately the oranges attracted attention, so handsome they 
were, so delicious, so free from seed, so firm for shipping. From 


Fig. 594. 

One of the original navel orange trees brought from 
Brazil in 1873. It was transplanted to the court¬ 
yard of the Glenwood Tavern at Riverside by 
President Roosevelt in 1903. 











602 


GEOGRAPHY OF CALIFORNIA 


these two trees came all the navel oranges in California. The parent 
trees (Fig. 594) are still alive, carefully attended and protected by 



Fig. 595. 


-i */ - 




Luther Burbank and a bit of his experimental garden, Santa Rosa, showing one of his 

Wonderful creations, spineless cactus. 


iron bars, 
visitors. 


they still bear abundant fruit, and may be seen bv 
In the immediate neighborhood are twenty million dollars’ 



A r. OVl), 


An orange grove at Fair Oaks, Sacramento Count? 











FRUIT GROWING 


603 


worth of navel orange groves (Figs. 572, 573). What great results 
have come from tins small beginning ! It makes us wonder if there 



Fig. 507. 

Ihe Limoneira Ranch, Ventura County. 350 acres in lemon trees in full bearing; 575 
acres in walnuts; the reservoir in the foreground and the packing house and barns in 
the distance. 


are not other fruits and food plants in far-off corners of the earth that 
would be of great value here. 




illy *> 

[ - 



Fig. 508. 

Lemou picking, Limoneira Ranch. 
















Fig. 599. 

Interior of packing house, showing process of packing 

Ranch. 


lemons for market, Limoneira 



Fig. 000. 

A piune orchard in bloom, Sonoma County. 


604 












FRUIT GROWING 


605 




.1 


Luther Burbank (Fig. 595), one of the most famous men of the 

z •, “1 ”” h 10 *»>1 i— or 

woild b} Ins new creations 

of flowers, fruit, and vege¬ 
tables, such as the Shasta 
daisy, the spineless cactus, 
and the Burbank potato. 

We may well be proud of 
the fact that Luther Bur¬ 
bank is a Californian and 
that his great work has all 
been done at his home in 
our own state. One of the 
large schools (Fig. 625) in 
Santa Rosa, his home town, 
is named the Burbank 
School. He is always in¬ 
terested in schools and 
children. 

It is not alone in the 
south that oranges are 
grown. One tenth of the 
citrus fruits are grown in 
Central and Northern Cali¬ 
fornia. In I ulare County 

is a fine orange section, where the fruit ripens earlier than in South¬ 
ern California. Near Sacra¬ 
mento (Fig. 596), and at 
Oroville too, oranges are 
successfully grown, and 
even as far north as Chico. 

Lemons are second of 
the citrus fruits in impor¬ 
tance, and they are grown 
in the same localities as 
oranges (Fig. 597). They 
can be picked (Fig. 598) 
every month in the year, 
Fio. 602. and it is common to find 

Hops at their full growth. ripe fruit, green fruit, and 


Fig. 001. 

Flaming lokay table grapes, Sacramento County. 


















Fig. 604. 

Drying prunes, San Joaquin Valley. 


606 - GEOGRAPHY OF CALIFORNIA 


blossoms on the trees at the same time. The yearly output (Fig. 
599) is about 5000 carloads. Almonds and walnuts are grown 

extensively in various 
parts of the state. The 
deciduous fruits, that 
is, those whose trees 
shed their leaves in 
winter, are nearly all 
grown in Central and 
Northern California. 

Many places have 
become famous for cer¬ 
tain fruits. Thus Fresno 
for raisins (Fig. 145); 
San Jose and Santa Rosa 
for prunes (Fig. 600); Watsonville and Salinas for apples; San 
Joaquin and Tulare for table grapes (Fig. 601) ; Sacramento for 


Fig. 603. 

Greystone winery, Napa County. Said to be the 
largest winery in the world. 


strawberries, table grapes, and hops (Fig. 602); Santa Rosa and Napa 
for wine grapes (Fig. 603); Vacaville for cherries. Fresno sends out 
2000 carloads of raisins per year, enough to supply a pound box to 











FRUIT GROWING 


607 



are3000 > p a ai ? d UVT" woman ’ in the United States. There 
0 carloads of dried prunes (Fig. 604) shipped every year all 


Fro. (505. 


An avenue in the Sylraar olive grove 


Los Angeles County. 


over the United States. The 
Clara Valley has 300,000 trees. 


Hume prune orchard in the Santa 
Dried peaches, pears, and apricots 



Fig. (50(5. 


An apiary in the foothills of Sonlhern California. The bees gather honey from the neigh¬ 
boring orchards, bean fields and mountain shrubbery. Sage and wild buckwheat are 
considered the best honey plants. The bees of California gather about four thousand 
tons of honey per year. Each hive is called a colony. The bee industry is a very inlcr- 
es ing study. Look it up and learn what you can about it. 


are important exports, 
oldest fruit industries of 


Olive culture (Fig. 605) is one of the 
the state, San Diego leads in the produc- 











608 


GEOGRAPHY OF CALIFORNIA 


tion of olives and olive oil, although there are large orchards in 
various other counties, and every year adds to the number of trees. 
While honey is produced in all of the principal valleys, the great 
supply for the market comes from the southern part of the state 
(Fig. 606). Each of these industries affords material for study, 
inquiry, and travel. It is real geography work for girls and boys 
to find out about these interesting things for themselves. 

QUESTIONS 

(1) What is the most important class of fruits in California? (2) For what 
is Riverside County famous ? (8) Tell the story of the parent orange tree. (4) In 
what other parts of the state are oranges grown? (5) IIow are new trees started 
if the orange has no seed? (6) Describe the lemon industry. (7) Find out all 
you can about Luther Burbank. (8) What are deciduous fruits, and where are 
they grown? IIow do the trees differ from citrus fruit trees? (9) Mention 
several towns famous for certain kinds of fruit. (10) Tell of the raisin and prune 
crops. (11) Which county leads in the production of olives and olive oil? 
(12) Tell what you can of the honey industry. 


• Forests and Lumber 

One of the greatest of the resources of the state is the forest and 
its lumber, obtained from the redwoods of the Coast and the pines 
of the Sierras. Our methods of lumbering are wasteful and extrava¬ 
gant, After the trees are felled, the whole country is often burned 
over (Fig. 607), to get rid of the bark on the logs, the saplings, and 
all undergrowth, so as to get the logs more easily to mill. At the mill 
( Fig. 608) a great fire burns, night and day, to get rid of the waste 
lumber, the slabs, blocks, and short pieces that are only in the way. 
Some of these fires have burned constantly for twenty or thirty years. 
Think of the mountains of fuel they have destroyed. This waste 
lumber is not salable just now, and it would not pay to ship it to 
market ; but later, when it will be valuable and sorely needed by 
the people, it cannot be recovered. 

One of the things our rich and extravagant country must learn 
to do is to care for and rightly use its resources and not allow them 
to be squandered. If we don’t wish to wake up too late and find 
our forests all gone, we must find ways to compel them to be used 
slowly and carefully, so as to let the young trees continually take 
the place of the old ones as they are cut down. The forest policy of 
our government is one of the things that all young Americans ought 
to watch and think about. There will be useful work for many boys 



Fig. 607. 

A section of the redwood forests of Humboldt, showing the burned condition of the red 

woods after cutting away the forest timber. 



> s' 

rji f 


f* A 






Fig. 608. 

Mill of the Pacific Lumber Company at Scotia, Humboldt County. Usual output, 200,000 ft 

per day. 

009 


















610 


GEOGRAPHY OF CALIFORNIA 



as foresters and rangers (Fig. 554), in the future, so it is worth 
looking up. 

The redwood forests grow down near the level of the sea, reach¬ 
ing back into the lower slopes and river valleys of the outer Coast 
Range. They originally extended from Monterey County northward 

into Oregon, but those of 
the central coast are nearly 
all gone. One splendid 
grove, Big Basin (Fig. 609), 
in Santa Cruz County, still 
remains. It ,was bought 
from private ownership by 
the state, and is set apart 
as a public park for our 
people and our visitors to 
look at and enjoy while 
they camp out or travel 
about to recreate them¬ 
selves with natural scenery 
and outdoor air. The trees 
in this park are very tempt¬ 
ing to lumber dealers, and 
the constant watchfulness 
of all good citizens is 
necessary if we would pre¬ 
serve the grove in the 
future. Remember this. 

The main part of the 
redwood forests, however, 
are now along the north coast, in Mendocino, Humboldt, and Del 
Norte counties. They are the wonder of the world. The vast 
trunks stand close together, towering like columns to the sky, 300 
feet high, 10 to -0 feet in diameter, several thousand years old. 
The stagecoach rolls silently over the needle-strewn roads, and the 
passengers are awed by the solemn twilight under the great trees. 
Ferns and bushes cover all the ground beneath. 

These forests have mostly passed from private owners into the 
possession of great lumber corporations. It is estimated that they will 
all be cut down in thirty years. The method is to chop down 
(Fig. 139) the trees or saw them down; then drag out the logs by 


Fig. 609. 

On the road to Governor’s Camp, California Red¬ 
wood Park. 









FORESTS ANI) LUMBER 


Gil 

long wire «bl«, (Fig. WO), extending tht.ngl, ,h, „„ hil , 

n* 1 *', "*—•«««■ The cable 1. pulled b, a i.j 
eng ne. Ihe logs are then loaded on railroad cars (Fig. 143 ) and 
hauled to the mills. The mills are often beside the salt water, so 
that the boards and shingles can pass directly from the saws to 
ie ships that are waiting to carry lumber to the ends of the earth 



Fig. 010. 


Baptist Church, Santa Rosa. Built with lumber from a single redwood tree. 


cintl to the distant islands of the sea. Sometimes a single tree will 
make a whole train load (big. 143) of logs; sometimes the lumber 
from one tree will build a big church (Fig. 610). 

The pine forests are more widely distributed than the redwoods 
(Fig. 152), covering the mountains in the higher Coast Ranges, the 
Sierras, and the few highest mountains of Southern California. The 
sugar pine is the most valuable tree, making fine, clear lumber for 
doors and window sashes. The yellow pine yields larger quantities 
than any other. Some fir and cedar is used, too. The methods of 
lumbering are similar to those of the redwoods, but when the lumber 
comes from the mills, it must be hauled down from the mountains 








612 


GEOGRAPHY OF CALIFORNIA 



Fig. 611. 


A view of a petrified giant of the forest — “ stone dead.” 
Forty-five acres of this large tract of forest near Santa 
Rosa is covered with petrified trees, some twenty-four 
feet in circumference and three hundred feet in length. 

most interesting things suggested here to 
about, or to go and see. 


with teams, or sent 
down in great flumes 
carrying a swift stream 
of water. Then it is 
distributed to the whole 
country by the rail¬ 
roads. The lumber 
products rank second 
in the industries of 
the state. In Sonoma 
County is a petrified 
forest (Fig. 611) made 
up of trees which fell 
ages ago and have 
turned into stone. 
There are plenty of 
read about, hear stories 


QUESTIONS 


(1) Tell why the lumbering method is wasteful. (2) What kind of trees are 
found near the coast ? Tell of the former extent of these forests. (3) Tell some¬ 
thing of the Big Basin. (4) Describe the forests of the northern coast counties. 
(5) Describe the method of getting the logs from the forests. (6) Tell how the 
logs are made into lumber and the lumber delivered to market. (7) Where are 
the pine forests found? (8) Find out what you can of the petrified forest. 


Mineral Products 

There is a very great variety of mineral products found within 
the state (Fig. (>12), more than fifty in number. Among the metals 
are gold, silver, copper, lead, quicksilver, iron, tin, antimony, plati¬ 
num. Among building materials are granite, sandstone, marble, 
buck clay, slate, lime, cement, asphaltum, bituminous rock. Among 
the gem stones are tourmaline, opal, beryl, diamond, garnet, tur¬ 
quoise. Among the fuels are coal, natural gas, and petroleum. 
Gold is naturally the most important product, since California is 
known as the Golden State. 

Dredger mining is a new and profitable way of extracting gold 
from the valleys at the base of the Sierras, along the streams from 
the Mother Lode. A great machine is built upon a scow (Fig. 613) 
which floats on an artificial pond of water fed by a ditch. This oper- 





Mineral 3Iap of California 

Showing the Approximate Locations of all the Principal 

MINERAL DEPOSITS 

TOGETHER WITH 

STATISTICS OK MINERAL PRODl'CTION 

ISSUED BY 

THE CALIFORNIA STATE MINING BUREAU 

Kerry Building San Francisco 

LEWIS E. AUBCRT 

State Mineralogist 

i«07 


TOTAL 

PRODUCTION 
FOR 1900 

$18,732,452 

$5,522,712 

,$712,334 

$9,238,020 

$109,489 

$61,600 

$1,182,410 

$213,228 

$18,000 


Principal Gold Producing Areas 
® Copper Deposits 
A Quicksilver Deposits 
-4- Oil Fields 
\>- Gas Wells 
+ Coal Mines 

SALINE DEPOSITS 

© Borax(Crude) 

® Salt 

P' Soda(Crude) 
o Towns 



San Francisco 


Santa Cruz 
JUontei 


PRODUCTION IN 1906. 

Total value Mineral Production for Year 510,770,085 

Total value Metallic Substances, inc. Precious Metals, 20,1156,702 
Total value Precious Metals, 519,550,282 

Total value Xon-Mctallic Substances, 52,589,984 
Total value Hydrocarbons and Gases, .10,170,273 
. Total value Structural Materials, 57,8.1,110 
. Totai Gold Product from 1S4S to January 1,1901 

/ 51 ,^ 62 , 755 , 703 * 


i x 

! • y - • SAN • 

-‘o %-1 - S ^ ° ’ 

,i \ o 8 ! ,*B E?R N A R D I N p 


W^ANTA CARBARaI/' \ I 

GELESl 

Snn Buena Ventura/_j • / 

l r Los A" 


San Diegoii 



Fig. 612. 


41—A G 


613 







614 


GEOGRAPHY OF CALIFORNIA 


ates a chain of heavy iron buckets which bring up the sand, rocks, 
and gravel from below even to a depth of sixty feet, scraping the solid 
bed rock below the gravels. The buckets empty their load upon the 
scow, where the gold is washed out in sluices, the same as with the 
gravel in ordinary placer mining. The rocks, from as big as your 
fist up to the size of a tub, are dumped aside by the dredger; the 
sand and soil settles down in the pond and is covered deeply by the 
rocks, perhaps changing a farm or vineyard into a desolate waste of 
bare stones. The dredger with its pond advances slowly as it works, 
eating up the country as it goes. The business is so profitable that 



Fig. 613. 


A dredger on the Feather River near Oroville mining for gold. One of these modern gold 
dredgers costs from $150,000 to $200,000 to build. As there are many of these machines 
at work in the northern part of the state, a large amount of gold must be produced to 
warrant the expenditure of so large a sum of money in building machinery to handle it. 


the dredger men can afford to pay enormous prices for the orchards 
and fields that are underlain by rich gravels. Fortunes are often 
made, and many men are given work for a time; but the copntry 
worked over is destroyed. No longer will it support people or keep 
up the strength of the state. We must protect our soil, for that is 
what our country is made of. AVe must in future have this worjk 
done so that the fertile soil is left above, the barren rocks below, 
even if the profits are not so sudden or so large. 

Copper (Fig. 614) is smelted from its ores in Shasta County, 
wheie tlieie aie the largest and most important mining works in the 
state. Iron ore is found in many places, but the lack of suitable fuel 
has thus far prevented the building of iron works. Lead and silver 








MINERAL PRODUCTS 


615 

occur in the mountains of the desert region in Inyo County. Quick¬ 
silver is found in the Coast Ranges, in Napa, Santa Clara, San Luis 
Obispo, and San Benito counties. No other state in the Union ap¬ 
proaches California’s output of this metal. Brick clay, marble, 
granite, and lime are well distributed all over the state. Asphaltum 
and its derivative, bituminous rock, are found in the mountains near 



Fig. 014. 

Copper smelter ;it Coram, Shasta County. Capacity, 1800 tons per day. Then* is blocked 
out at the present time in the Shasta County copper ore fields alone, two hundred and 
fifty million dollars’ worth of ore. 


the coast in Southern California, associated with the petroleum fields. 


Bituminous rock is a sandstone saturated with asphaltum used in 
paving and road building. 

In San Diego and Riverside counties are mines of beautiful crys¬ 
tals, called gem stones. They are hard and brittle, difficult to cut 
and polish; but their colors are so exquisite, their luster so brilliant, 
that they are very valuable as jewels. Tourmalines are of green and 
red tints; beryls of greenish shades; kunzite is a recently discovered 
stone named for Mr. Ivunz, the gem expert at Tiffany's. It is of a 
delicate lilac and almost as brilliant as a diamond. Opals and tur¬ 
quoise are found in the deserts of San Bernardino County. Dia¬ 
monds are found in the gravels of Butte County. 

A rather poor variety of coal, called lignite, is found about the base 
of Mt. Diablo, and also in the coast mountains of Southern California. 














616 


GEOGRAPHY OF CALIFORNIA 



The lack of good coal and the expense of bringing it from foreign 
places by ship or rail has prevented the development of manufac¬ 
tures in the state. This lack, however, is being made up by the dis¬ 
covery and development of great oil fields, in Fresno, Kern (Fig. 615), 

Los Angeles, Santa Barbara, and Ventura counties. 
The invention of oil-burning locomotives, furnaces, 
and stoves makes fuel oil one of the great staples 
of the Coast. Pipe lines bring the oil to the seashore, 
whence it is shipped to foreign and domestic ports; 


Fig. 615. 


A view of a portion of Kern County’s great oil fields which extend for miles along Kern 
River. There are many hundreds of oil derricks such as appear above, and great storage 
tanks built of earth containing thousands of gallons of the crude, black oil pumped from 
the wells; oil is loaded into tank cars by gravity for shipment, while the waste product 
runs into “sump ” holes and is burned. 


or perhaps it is refined before shipping. A great pipe line leads 
from the Kern County oil fields nearly 300 miles to Point Rich¬ 
mond on San Francisco Bay, where the refineries (Fig. 616) of 
the Standard Oil Company are located. By refining crude oil is 
meant its separation by distilling into its constituent parts, such 
as asphaltum, paraffin, gasoline, benzine, naphtha, kerosene, dis¬ 
tillate, lubricating oils, etc. Petroleum is second only to gold in 
value of mineral products, and doubtless it will soon take first 
place. It is of enormous value to the state already, although we 
have hardly begun to know how to use it or appreciate it as yet. 
It is a much cheaper and more convenient source of power than 
coal. It is estimated that the Southern Pacific Railroad alone 
saves over five million dollars per year by changing from coal-burning 
to oil-burning locomotives; and that our oil fields keep within the 









MINERA L Pli OD UCTS 


G17 


< over thirty million dollars per year that was formerly sent 
w.u for coal. The oil wells average about a thousand feet in depth, 
and cost from $5000 to $10,000 each. The California oil in most 
cases must be pumped out, as it is a thick, black, heavy fluid, about 
one third of it asphaltum; although there are several flowino- wells 
for example the Hartnell Gusher, Santa Barbara County, producing 



Fig, GIG. 


A view of flic Standard Oil Company’s refinery at Point Richmond. Notice the oil tanks 
stills, smokestacks — indicating business activity and commercial life. Here is where 
the crude oil is refined and its various constituent parts made ready for market. 


from 8000 to 5000 barrels a day, while other wells yield from 5 to 
200 barrels per day, every day in the year. The selling price has 
been very low, about thirty-five cents a barrel, for the reason that 
California was not prepared to use the immense quantities that were 
suddenly produced upon the discovery of the Kern Itiver oil fields. 
This led to discouragements, losses, and great wastes of this valuable 
natural resource. Because of its cheapness it has been largely used 
to sprinkle the dust of streets and roads in many places. It is too 
precious to the world to be long used in that way, however. This 
od is another of the things belonging to the people of the state that 
true patriotism demands of us to protect and use wisely. There is 







618 


GEOGRAPHY OF CALIFORNIA 


employment and prosperity bottled up in it for the boys and girls 
who read tins, and for those of future generations. To pump it out 
of its underground reservoirs before it is needed, to waste it and sell 
it for a song, is wanton extravagance with what really does not belong 
to us, but to our descendants. 

Natural gas often occurs in the oil wells and elsewhere. It is 
piped into furnaces or stoves, and makes the most desirable fuel that 
the world lias ever seen. It should not be used for burning bricks 
or other manufacturing purposes, but saved for household use. Arti¬ 
ficial gas in California is manufactured almost entirely from petro¬ 
leum. In other states it is usually made from coal. 

Salt (Fig. 565), borax, niter, and soda (Fig. 566) have been men¬ 
tioned as occurring in the muddy bottoms of desert sinks. When 
transportation from the desert regions becomes better and cheaper, 
niter will become a highly important product. It is needed in mak¬ 
ing explosives and fertilizers. Our growing orchards will continue 
to need fertilizers, and the niter beds that make the chief wealth of 
Chili are said to be nearing exhaustion. Our country sends away 
millions of dollars every year for Chilian niter. There is a point 
here for ambitious boys to ponder upon. Salt is also extracted from 
sea water by evaporation at San Francisco and San Diego. The 
water is let into broad, shallow ponds, and evaporated in the heat of 
the sun. 

QUESTIONS 

(1) Name some of the metals and building materials of the state. (2) De¬ 
scribe dredger mining. What effect has it on the land mined? (3) Tell of the 
copper industry ; iron; quicksilver; marble; asphaltum. For what is each used? 
(4) Where are gem stones found? Mention the principal kinds. (5) Where are 
the oil fields? Describe an oil well. (6) What is meant by refining crude oil? 
(7) What is natural gas, and what use is made of it? 


Manufacturing 

In the past, California lias been held back m manufacturing be¬ 
cause fuel in the form of coal had to be shipped in, and was expen¬ 
sive. Things are different now. The petroleum of our oil wells 
(Fig. 615) is being used in great quantities as fuel to make steam 
for the engines that turn the wheels of hundreds of new factories. 
Besides, the water power (Fig. 549) of the Sierran streams is used 
to generate electricity, which is taken by long lines of wires, up 
and down and across our state, wherever it may be needed to run 
machinery. Many of our factories are busy preparing the products 


619 


manufacturing 


Of our farms for market. Flour mills (Fig. 617) wineries ( Fi* 6<m 

Our sugar refineries and 
beet-sugar factories (Fig. 

146) are increasing in num¬ 
ber and importance. Great 
smelters are at work purify - 
ing the gold, silver, copper 
(Fig. 614), and lead taken 
fi om the mines. We have 
tanneries making leatherout 
of the hides of our cattle, 

and woolen mills using the wool of our great Hocks of sheep. 
Cement works, potteries, and brickyards supply their share of material 
or our growing cities. Foundries, ship-building yards, and fac¬ 
tories for making mining machinery have become important. Powder 
works and match factories are found. Most of these factories. 



Fig. (JIT. 

U. S. Army Transport Lor/an loading flour at 
South Vallejo. 



Fig. fils. 


Loading an ocean vessel with California products for foreign 

San Francisco. 


markets. 


Waterfront, 


especially the larger ones, are situated in the San Francisco Bay 
region. It is of great value to any factory to have a water route 
right in front of it. That means that it can get its raw material 
and send out its finished products in ships (Fig. 618), and ships 
do not charge as much for carrying freight as the railroads do. 














620 


GEOGRAPHY OF CALIFORNIA 


There is a good future for manufacturing in this state. We 
have plenty of good, cheap power; the state is building up,, and 
our home demand for factory products is getting larger every day. 
Across the great Pacific are new lands swarming with people who 
are beginning to buy manufactured goods from us ; and before long 
the Panama Canal will give our products a cheap and easy route 
to the eastern part of our country and to all the countries of Europe. 
Many a boy and girl who reads this will see the day when there will 
be a dozen factories in California for every one that is here now. 

QUESTIONS 

(1) Why is California not a manufacturing state ? (2) What tends to foster 

great manufacturing interests? (3) What are smelters? tanneries? potteries? 

foundries? woolen mills? (4) Where are most of the factories situated? Why? 
(5) What do you think of the future of manufacturing in California? (0) IIow 
will the Panama Canal benefit California? 

Transportation 


The wagon roads and railways follow geographical lines, running 
northwest and southeast along the great valleys and between the 
long mountain chains; with but few cross ways leading from the 



Fig. 619. 

The “Overland Limited” skirting a shore of San Francisco Bay; U. S. battleship in the 

distance. 


coast to the great valleys and from the great valleys to the desert 
regions. The Southern Pacific Railroad (Fig. 619) runs the entire 






TUAN SPORT A IT ON 


621 


length of the state through the Great Valley Region, from Oregon 
to the southern end of the state. It has a parallel line through the 
Coast Region from San Francisco to Los Angeles, and many branches 
leading into the side valleys. From Los Angeles it runs easterly 
through the desert, headed for New Orleans; in the north it extends 

t0 ° rtlanc1 ’ 0re & on 5 m the center, its traffic goes east, via the Ceil- 
tral Pacific, over the Sierras (Fig. 563), through Ogden, and on to 



Fio. (520. 

U. S. Army transport Sho-ridcui, bound for the Orient. 


Chicago and New York. It lias more than 3000 miles within the 
state of California. 

The Santa Fe Railroad reaches from San Francisco down the 
Great Valley, over the Tehachapi Pass, across the Mojave Desert 
and on to the east, leaving the state by crossing the Colorado River 
at Needles. From the desert station of Barstow, a branch extends 
into the southern counties by the Cajon Pass, going through San 
Bernardino to Dos Angeles, and on down the coast to San Diego. 

Fhe Salt Lake Road extends from Los Angeles to Salt Lake, 
Utah, by way of the Cajon Pass and the Mojave Desert. 

The Western Pacific is a new transcontinental road coming into 
the state across the deserts of Nevada, over the Sierras through the 
Beckwourth Pass, and down the Sacramento Valley to San Fran¬ 
cisco. 

The California Northwestern Railroad extends from San Fran- 

















622 


GEOGRAPHY OF CALIFORNIA 


cisco northward through the valleys of the Coast Ranges, headed for 
Humboldt Bay and the coast of Oregon. 

A great development of transportation by electric railroads may 
be expected in the future. Already the more closely settled regions 
are gridironed by trolley lines (Fig. 551), some a hundred miles 
long; and these will be multiplied and extended until the fertile 
part of the state becomes a perfect network. The mountain streams 
come down steep slopes near the wide valleys, with their growing 
cities. Thus the conditions are just right for a wonderful develop¬ 
ment of electric power, giving employment to thousands of engi¬ 
neers and electricians who are now little boys in school. 

On the ocean there is great traffic by steamers (Fig. 620) and 
sailing vessels up and down the coast and with foreign ports as well. 
The steamship lines radiating from San Francisco, the swarms of 

boats and ships that 
pi)' in and out of the 
smaller harbors alono- 

O 

the shore all the way 
from Crescent City to 
San Diego, the river 
crafts (Fig. 621) that 
go up and down the 
streams emptying into 
San Francisco Bay, the 
wheat ships, the lum¬ 
ber vessels, the army 
transports, the men-of- 
war, all these fill the waters of California with life and motion (Fio-. 
525) and make for the greatness of the state. All these must be 
dismissed here with only the brief hint that our shipping is full of 
interest for all children, and Avill yield many a fascinating story. 

QUESTIONS 

(1) Tn what direction do most of the railroads run ? Why ? (2) What two lono- 
parallel lines has the Southern Pacific in California? (3) By what two routes 
could you go east by the Southern Pacific? (4) Suppose you were going to New 
lork. Describe your trip and the California cities you would pass through if you 
went by the Santa Fe ; by the Salt Lake ; by the Western Pacific. (5) How are 
the rural districts being brought into close relations with commercial centers? 
(6) What important means of transportation other than the railroads is there in 
this state? (7) Tell something of the traffic in and out of the Golden Gate. 



Fig. 621. 


A passenger and freight steamer on the Sacramento 
River, plying between Sacramento and San Francisco. 










earthquakes 


623 


Earthquakes 

Once our old earth was much hotter on its surface than it is now. 
t is still very hot inside. This is shown to us by the hot springs 
( l S- E>1), the volcanoes, with their streams of lava, and the hio-h 
temperature found in the bottom of deep mines. Slowly, through 
the centuries, it has been and still is cooling off. As it cools, it 
contracts, just as a hot wagon tire shrinks a little in cooling off 

after the blacksmith has placed it on the wheel and poured cold 
water over it. 

The Pacific Coast is a line of weakness in the earth. Mountains 
are growing here. Here the high mountains are near the deep sea. 
Here are many long lines of fracture in the earth, running parallel 
to our mountain ranges. As the earth contracts, its outer rocks 
wrinkle like the skin of a shriveled apple. These wrinkles are 
our mountain ranges. As they are straining under the fearful pres¬ 
sure put upon them by the contracting earth, they frequently break, 
one edge of the break slipping up, the other down. This breaking 
and grinding of the rocky edges against each other, as they slip, 
makes the shock and trembling of the ground that we know as 
earthquake. If a great city happens to be near the break, great 
damage results ; particularly if the houses of the city nre badly built 
or built on poor foundations, or built with tali towers and chimneys 
that are readily shaken down. The earthquake of 1906 was a fur¬ 
ther slipping of an old break up and down the state along the coast 
range that has been known for many years. It is some TOO miles 
tel nicest in the world, reaching from Mendocino 
County to the deserts of Southern California. The earthquake of 
1872 in Inyo County was much more severe than that of San Fran¬ 
cisco, but being in a sparsely settled country, little danger to mankind 
was possible. The same may be said of other earthquakes in the 
past. 

We should understand the fact that earthquakes are quite as 
natural as rainstorms or north winds. They are the means bv which 
our mountains grow, but they come so infrequently that they surprise 
and frighten us. There is nothing in them to excite unreasoning 
terror for they do not destroy nearly as many people as whooping 
cough or other common illness; are not nearly so costly to human 
life as baseball or football; and those things do not frighten us. We 
should regard earthquakes as a natural phenomenon, and should 


624 


GEOGRAPHY OF CALIFORNIA 


build for them, guarding against them as we do against rain and wind. 
It is reasonable to suppose that the future will again see both earth¬ 
quake and volcanic activity within our borders. 

QUESTIONS 

(1) Why does the earth contract ? (2) Why must we expect earthquakes on 

the Pacific Coast? (3) What causes an earthquake? (4) How does the loss of 
life by earthquake compare with that by athletic sports? 

History 

Since we have a good history of the state in the text-books on 
United States History, it will not be necessary to go into the matter 
here, further than to point out a few historic facts directly connected 
with our geography. 

A very striking fact is that California was so far behind the rest 
of the continent in being accurately known to the civilized nations 

of the world and in beiim set- 
tied by European peoples. The 
coast was touched by the ships 
of Cabrillo and Drake shortly 
before 1550; but after that the 
region seemed to have been 
forgotten. It la} 7 for a century 
and a half — four or five gen¬ 
erations— unsettled, unvisited, 
unknown. Virginia had been 
settled a hundred and fifty 
years before an American ship 
ever came to California. Even 
as late as the Revolutionary 
War the densest ignorance pre¬ 
vailed. It was supposed to be 
an island, or a peninsula extend¬ 
ing all the way from Mexico 
to British Columbia. The old 
maps seem queer creations as 
we look at them now. At last 
the Spaniards who had settled in Mexico sent some colonies up into 
California to convert the Indians (Fig. 622) and secure the country 
foi Spain. Llie hist settlement was made at San Diego, our nearest 








Fio. 623. — Historical Buildings. 

1. Sutter’s Fort, Sacramento. 2. Colton Hall, Monterey. The first capitol of the state 

3. The old U. S. customhouse, Monterey. 





















626 


GEOGRAPHY OF CALIFORNIA 



city to the Mexican boundary, in 1769. Other Mexican-Spanish 
expeditions felt their way with uncertainty up the coast. One under¬ 
took to find the great bay of Monterey (Fig. 531), but missed it 
altogether and discovered San Francisco Bay (Fig. 526), instead. 
Drake himself, over two hundred years before, sailed right past San 
b rancisco Bay, never even dreaming of its existence, while he stayed 
at a small and inferior anchorage only a little way to the north. 

This belated exploration and settlement, this ignorance and 
uncertainty, grew directly out of geographical conditions. The 

country was cut off from the rest of the 
continent by vast deserts and snowy 
mountain ranges across which no man 
at that time had passed. Moreover, the 
coast was stern and rockbound, with 
few safe anchorages for ships, and with 
no base of supplies on that side of the 
world. 

The early settlements, too (Fig. 
623), were determined by geographic 
conditions., When the Spanish padres 
selected the sites for their chain of 
twenty-one missions up and down the 
state, they showed great sagacity. 
Their locations were the fairest and 
the richest in the state, and the wis¬ 
dom of their choice shows forth to-day. 
A road connecting these missions was 
built by the Mission Fathers. The 
name given the road was “El Camino 
Real (big. 624), which is now being 
restored. \\ here are our large cities, 
our rich valleys? San Francisco, Los 
Angeles, Santa Barbara, San Diego, 
Sonoma, Santa Clara, San Buenaven¬ 
tura,— these were all started by the 






■ • : 




A.v> 




Fig. 624. 


One of the many Mission Bells that Mission Fathorc 
mark the way of “ El Camino LSlSlon i atlieis. 

Real,M Later historic events were also 


snapea by the geography of the state, 
lhe wonderful tide of immigration that began in 1849 (Ficr. 547 ) 

that brought 100,000 men in a year or two, and that resulted in 










627 


EDUCATION AND GOVERNMENT 

the admission of the full-fledged state in 1850, grew directly from 
the fact that the streams of the Sierras had washed out gold from the 
quartz seams of the Mother Lode, and deposited it in the gravels 
of the foothill counties. Every city in this state grew up for some 
geographic reason which would be interesting to trace. Our future 
as well as our past rests upon our geographical conditions, upon the way 
our country is built and how it is located. Our wealth, our future, 
are bound up in our long, rich valleys ; in our streams of water from 
a long, snow-crowned mountain range ; in our long shore line that 
controls the commerce of our continent with the Orient. 


QUESTIONS 

(1) Compare the settlement of California with that of the Eastern States, as 
to methods and time, giving reasons for the differences. (2) Why do you suppose 
San Francisco Bay was so long undiscovered? (3) Why did the early Spaniards 
come to California ! (4) Name the sites of the early missions. If you have seen 

one, describe it. (5) What has become of the descendants of the early Indians? 
(6) How has the geography of the state affected its history? 


Education 

California affords good opportunity for education. Its school 
system consists of the following elements : — 

hirst, the Public Schools with about ten thousand teachers and 
about forty children for each teacher. Each of these forties costs 
the taxpayers of the state about a thousand dollars per year. Our 
laws are exceedingly generous to the small and remote schools of 
the state, allowing $600 or more to every school district, no matter 
how small and no matter how little the tax that it pavs. Some dis- 
tricts pay only $50 or less in school taxes in return for the $600 
or more that they receive as school funds. The difference is 
made up by the taxes paid by the cities. The state pays these 
great sums of money so that all the children may learn to under¬ 
stand each other, learn to get along well together, grow into 
decent, intelligent citizens together. It is unfortunate for any one 
to fail to get the experience of our public schools, if he is to live in 
our country. The schools are intended to help all young people to 
learn to make an honest living in the world, to take an intelligent 
part in our government, to be useful to their fellow-citizens, and to 
be happy (Figs. 625-626). 

Second, the Normal Schools where teachers are trained. These 
are supported by state taxation, and cost about $230,000 per year. 





628 




o Fig. 625. — Typical School Buildings. 6 

Rural school, San Juan. 2. Polytechnic High, Los Angeles. 3. Lassen County High, Susanville. 4. City High, Stockton 

5. Grant Grammar, Oakland. 6. Luther Burbank Grammar, Santa Rosa. 























Sewing. I raining School, San Diego 
State Normal School. 



3. Wood work. Training School, San 
Diego State Normal School. 



4. Cooking. Fresno Grammar School. 

Fig. (52(1. — Industrial Work in Public Schools. 


42—A o 


(529 























630 


GEOGRAPHY OF CALIFORNIA 


They are five in number, located at Chico in the north, San Fran¬ 
cisco and San Jose in the middle, Los Angeles and San Diego in the 
south. 

Third, Special State Schools, as the California Polytechnic 
School (Fig. 627) at San Luis Obispo, free to boys and girls who 



Fig. 627. 

California Polytechnic School. 



want to be farmers, stock growers, or tradesmen ; the Institution 

for the Deaf and the Blind at Berkeley (Fig. 628); the School of 

Industry at lone and the State Industrial School at Whittier, where 

children are sent 
% 

by the courts to 
get a new chance 
to learn decent 
citizenship. 

Fourth, Pri¬ 
vate Schools, doing- 
work similar to 
our public schools, 
but supported by 
churches and the 
parents of children 
who attend them. 
FlG - 62S - There are about 

Institution for the Deaf and the Blind, Berkeley. twQ hundred of 

these in the state, chiefly parochial schools. There are about fortv 
orphan schools, partly supported by the state. 


Fifth, Sectarian Colleges, supported by tuition charges and pri¬ 
vate benefactions, and controlled by various religious denomina- 













1 . 


Greek Theatre, University of California. 2. Quadrangle and Memorial Church, Lelarnl 
Stanford Jr. University. 3. Lick Observatory, Mt. Hamilton, near San dost*. 

























632 


GEOGRAPHY OF CALIFORNIA 


tions. Santa Clara College is Catholic ; Occidental at Los Angeles 
is Presbyterian; Pomona is Congregational; the University of South¬ 
ern California at Los Angeles and the University of the Pacific 
near San Jose are Methodist. Mills College at Oakland is the only 
college exclusively for women in the state. 

Sixth, LTniversities (Fig. 629). The University of California at 
Berkeley is supported by state taxes and private benefactions. 
Stanford University, at Palo Alto, is supported by private benefac¬ 
tion. Tuition in both of these universities is free, and both are co¬ 
educational ; that is, they educate both men and women. 

Government 

California is one of the forty-six states of the Union, governed in 
much the same manner as the other states under the Federal Gov¬ 
ernment, whose seat is at Washington, D.C. 

The laws of the Federal Government are made by Congress 
(Fig. 85), composed of the Senate and the House of Representatives. 

The laws of the State Government are made by the Legislature 
(Fig. 630), composed of the Senate and Assembly. In California 
the Legislature meets biennially. The Judicial Department consists 
of the Supreme Court, the three Appellate Courts, County Superior 
Courts, Justice Courts, and Police Courts. 

There are fifty-eight counties in the state, each of which has local 
laws enacted by its Board of Supervisors. Every incorporated city 
in the state has its own local laws enacted by its Governing Body. 
The Governor of the state is the chief Executive. 


QUESTIONS 

(1) Describe the public school system of California. For what purposes do 
the public schools exist? (2) Tell of the normals; how many; where located. 
(3) What are the special state schools? Name some. (4) Tell of the private 
schools. (5) Sectarian colleges. Give names of some of the most prominent 
ones. (6) What is a university ? Name the two large ones in California. (7) 
Describe briefly the government of California. (8) How many states are in 
the Union ? 



1. Ihe AAhite House,” Washington, D.C. The home of the I’resi 

dent of the United States. 



2. The State Capitol and grounds, Sacramento. 



3. County Court House, Riverside. 


Fig. 630. Government Buildings. 





















634 


GEOGRAPHY OF CALIFORNIA 


Cities 

♦ 

The demand for food supplies, clothing, building materials, farm¬ 
ing implements, and machinery of all kinds builds up in convenient 
centers large cities with smaller cities and towns in the sections sur¬ 
rounding. 

The most important of these city centers in this state are San 
Francisco, Los Angeles, Sacramento, Stockton, Fresno, San Jose, 
Eureka, San Diego, Bakersfield, and Santa Rosa. There are many 
smaller centers with their surrounding towns and contributory farm¬ 
ing country. More than half of the people of the state are living 
in these large city centers engaged in manufacturing, in commerce, 
or in some one of the many branches of trade. 

Any California city would afford good material for an imaginary 
journey, and would richly repay a geography class for a detailed 
study. It is a fine exercise for a class to hunt out the population, 
the reasons for the location, the transportation, the industries, the 
commerce, the great buildings, the homes, the streets, of a great city. 

The class and the teacher may very well spend several days with 
the pictures and the books and the stories that they can get together 
to give a knowledge and a real appreciation of a great, live, throb¬ 
bing, noisy, powerful city. 

The capital city of California is Sacramento, lying in the right 
angle formed by the east bank of the Sacramento River and south 
bank of the American River, ninety miles from San Francisco. It 
stands on low ground, but is protected by levees on all sides. Its 
soil is rich and deep, very favorable to the growth of trees. The 
elms and walnuts along the streets are of noble size. The grounds 
(I ig. 630) about the Capitol in the center of the city include ten city 
blocks, a little more than thirty-three acres, and are famous for the 
wealth and variety of their trees, shrubs, and flowers, drawn from 
all over the world. 

A short distance east of the Capitol about half an acre of the 
park is set apart as a memorial grove, dedicated and presented to the 
state by the ladies of the Grand Army of the Republic, Department 
of California. Fhe trees forming this historic grove were trans¬ 
planted from the famous battlefields of the Civil War, and other 
places noted in American history. 

The Capitol itself (Fig. 513) is a classic building rising snowy 
white among the green trees to a height of 240 feet. The dome is 


CITIES 


635 


surmounted by a crown of brilliant electric lights which shine afar 

tor many miles at night over all the level surrounding country. The 
building cost more than three millions of dollars. It shelters the 
Legislature, the Governor, and all the other State Officers the 
Appellate Court, and the State Library. 

Sacramento is one of the oldest cities of the state. In the 

early days it became famous as the distributing point for the crold 

fields, sending out in freight wagons the goods brought up from San 

I raneisco by river boats. It is now an important railroad center, 

being at the junction of the east-west and north-south lines of trans- 
portation. 


QUESTIONS 

/on < o\ Make * ' ist ° f tlle te " largest cities in California. Give population of each. 
(-) Select one city for class study, and use information gathered as a basis of com¬ 
parison with other cities both in this and other states. (3) Name important cities 
and towns m the Sacramento and the San Joaquin valleys ; in Southern California; 
along the coast; in the mountain sections. What has built up these cities or 
towns? (4) If possible, secure pictures of cities, noted buildings, busy centers 

beautiful homes, parks, etc., that will give the child some idea of a busy, energetic 
people living in large cities. 

Such questions as the following are interesting to figure out roughly : Allow¬ 
ing five persons to a family, how many families in the city ? How much milk 
would they need per day? How many cows are needed to produce this milk? 
Where do they keep these cows? How many loaves of bread per day would the 
people need ? Where does it come from? Where does the water come from to 
supply the city ? Where does the sewage go? What fuel is used, and where does 
it come from? What is the source of a city’s wealth? Allowing three children 
to a family, how many children would there be? How many teachers would be 
required to teach them ? 

Last of All 


J lius we have a picture in our minds of California, to remain dur¬ 
ing the coming years ; a great state, commanding the central portion 
of the 1 acific ( oast of North America ; a state largest but one in the 
l nion and most varied of all in its surface, its climates, its soils, its 
products ; a state of loftiest mountains, of widest deserts, of grandest 
scenery; a state peculiarly fitted as a desirable place for mankind to 
dwell; a state rich in resources and with a boundless future before 
it; a state of opportunity for the young who are now reading this 
book: opportunity for power, usefulness, happiness, prosperity. 


636 


* GEOGRAPHY OF CALIFORNIA 


GENERAL QUESTIONS 

(1) What is meant by the Great Basin ? (2) What would happen in the Great 

Basin if the rainfall should be greatly increased? (3) Tell something about the 
islands. How were they formed ? (4) What are the chief things which affect the 

climate of California? . (5) On which side of the mountain ranges does it rain 
the most, and why ? (6) Where is the climate most uniform ? (7) What part of 

the state receives the least rain ? Why? (8) Tell about the climates which you 
would pass through in going in the summer from the Great Valley to the summit 
of the Sierra Nevada. (9) How would the vegetation change? What trees of 
value for lumber would you see? (10) Are the animals that we meet to-day like 
those living a long time ago? (11) Why do people destroy animals? What 
means have been taken for their preservation? (12) What is the object ol estab¬ 
lishing national forests? (13) Why does California have such a variety of natural 
resources? Mention the important ones. (14) Was California entered first from 
the land or from the water ? (15) What natural barriers exist between California 

and the other portions of America?. Were these as easy to cross in the early days 
as now ? Why ? (16) When did California come under the control of the Ameri¬ 

cans? What were then the two leading towns? (17) Why did not Monterey 
become a large city after the American occupation? (18) How much of a town 
was San Francisco in 1846 ? (19) What led to the rapid increase of the population 

of California after its conquest from Mexico? (20) What led San Francisco to 
become the most important city of the state? (21) In what portions of the state 
is most of the gold obtained? (22) Describe any kind of mining that you have 
seen carried on. (23) Explain the difference between placer, hydraulic, and quartz 
mining. (24) How did the pioneer gold-seekers reach the state ? What difficul¬ 
ties did they encounter? Mention the different trails by which they entered the 
state. (25) What portion of the state was occupied by the Spanish at the time 
of the gold discovery? Why? (26) In what way are people enabled to grow 
fruit and other products where little rain falls? (27) Tell what is meant by 
citrus fruits; by deciduous fruit; by viticulture. (28) If there were no high moun¬ 
tains, how would the water supply be affected ? (29) What helps to hold the water 

upon the slopes where it falls? Why? (30) Describe the process of irrigation. 

(31) What advantage have irrigated crops over those dependent upon the rainfall? 

(32) What are the important fruits shipped out of the state? Where do they 

mostly go? (33) Why were supplies of all kinds so high priced following the 
discovery of gold ? (34) Tell how mountains are being torn down. (35) What 

agency formed the most of the lakes in California? (36) Tell something about 
the origin of the canons in the Sierra Nevada Mountains. (37) Watch the work 
of water upon a slope during a rain, and tell what it does. (38) What is the most 
important occupation in the Sierra Nevada Mountains? Mention others. Why 
do people go into the mountains in the summer? (39) Mention the national 
parks in California. Why were they established? (40) What were the causes 

which determined the locations of the chief cities of the Great Valley? (41) How 
is the water power in the mountains utilized ? Why are not manufacturing estab¬ 
lishments located in the mountains? (42) How does the climate of the Great 
Valley differ from that of the Coast? Why? What part-of the valley is adapted 
to oranges? (43) How are raisins made? What kind of climate is needed? 
(44) Where are most of the vegetables of the Great Valley grown? Why? (45) 
Where are the conditions most advantageous for dairying? Why? (46) What 
mineral abundant in the Coast Ranges is found in few places elsewhere in the 


637 


general questions 

United States ? (47) Wherp arp tho 

uses of copper. (48) Describe the mn!t • G °^j )ev mmes ? Mention some of the 
thing about this tree. SVln th,?, u£ redwood. Tell some- 

lumber from the mills to market? r.i'iTu'l' ‘ l ' e . the , lo ° s . takeu to mill, and the 
industry of the volcanic plateau? Where is theVlim ,t ™ frVf'' 6 " l0S * iln P orta »t 
The hottest? Why? (hi) How arev^Iioes ^ 
seen lava, describe its appearance rvD in, . ; , ^ ou * lav e ever 

shut off from the rest oVthe state? VVhV T “ Soutl,e ™ California 

value of mountains, of waste slooes around + • g , (' )8 ) Describe the 

(59) What is bituminous rock, and for what i.s'Tt"used? “(W) I)e c!T 
harbor upon the coast of Southern California (HI 1 What I escribe the best 
the largest city in Southern California? ((!•> 'Describe the p *V ade J;? 8 Angeles 
in summer in Southern California ((13) ul n V.'* COnd,t, ? n of the streams 
nary well andan artesian J l ? Tot)Tsc 1» the W f 1™"? ."T *° ^ 

for oranges; for apples; for alfalfa; for beans! (65) Whv do ,OCatioI ‘, best 
are so few lakes in the mountains of Southern California ? ’ (HU) ““ sup P ose [ lie,e 

waters of the lakes or sinks in California ? 69) In wlrt trHo "'f H '°'i' °* 

are borax and salt found ? (70) What is rock salt? miWI t'l ,e< Ieseit 
are found in the desert? f 7 o\ rj, TJ , . f,‘ *> " hat . otl >er minerals 

a t j. • f “ ) f w bat you Ccin about the vegetation of flip 

Mention some of the important plants found there. ° 1 th ° deseit - 



Lou Dillon, 1 : f>8}. 

A native of Santa Rosa. She holds the world’s record. 


SUMMARY 


PRODUCTS 


(From Kerort of State Board of Trade) 


Summary of values of products of the soil of California for 1907, marketed by the 
producer, and for the greater part shipped out of the state. Consumption by home 
population not included. 


Orchard Products — 

Fresh Deciduous Fruits . 

Citrus Fruits. 

Dried Fruits. 

Prunes . 

Canned Fruits. 

Olives and Olive Oil 

Nuts. 

Vineyard Products — 

Table Grapes. 

Raisins. 

Dried Grapes. 

Wine. 

Brandy. 

Garden Products — 

Fresh. 

Canned ...... 

Dairy Products — Butter, Cheese, etc. . 

Honey, Poultry, etc. — 

Poultry and Eggs . 

Honey. 

Sundry others . . . . 

Farm Products — 

Barley. 

Wheat. 

Oats. 

Corn. 

Rye and other Grain 

Grain and Grass Hay and Alfalfa . 

Other Field Crops — 

Hops. 

Potatoes, Irish . 

Potatoes, Sweet . 


Values. 
$ 7,424,620 
28,953,300 
12,723,150 
2,400,000 
8,948,955 
750,000 
2,360,000 


5,210,000 

6,000,000 

300,800 

11,825,000 

1,875,000 


4,808,000 

5,725,265 


Total values 


$63,660,025 


25,210,800 


10,533,265 

24,564,441 


12,960,000 

1,044,000 

300,000 

14,304,000 


18,812,200 

10,331,163 

1,186,000 

894,000 

1,850,000 


33,073,363 

32,072,959 


1,850,000 

4,651,918 

210,000 


638 




























SUMMARY 


639 


Other Field Crops (continued) — 

Beans 

* # • 

Onions 
Beet Sugar 

o ••••.. 

Seeds and others 
Melons 

* 

Fish 

^ . 

* orest Products — 

Lumber and Increase of Stumpage Value 
Ties, Tanbark, etc. . 

Poles, etc. 

* 

Minerals — 

Gold. 

Copper .... 

• • • 

Petroleum 

Cement and others .... 

Farm Animals and Products_ 

Increase, 1906-1907 . 

• • • 

Slaughtered 

Wool 

* 

Hides, Tallow, etc. 

Grand Total 


. $2,917,500 
750,000 
. 5,102,230 

540,000 
480,000 

$16,501,648 

5,000,000 

I 

. 92,094,850 
. 3,400,000 

. 1,850,000 

97,344,850 

. 18,732,452 
. 5,522,712 

. 16,050,500 
. 10,282,901 

50,588,565 

. 3,158,845 

. 24,320,000 
. 1,800,000 
. 2,300,000 

31,578,845 

¥404^442,761 


POPULATION OF CALIFORNIA, 1850 TO 1900 


Census Years 

Population 

Increase 

Number 

Per Cent 

1900 . . . 

1880 . 

1870 . . . 

1860 . . . 

1850 . . . 

1,485,053 

1,208,130 

864,694 

560,247 

379,994 

92,597 

276,923 

343,436 

304,447 

180,253 

287,397 

_ 

22.9 

39.7 

54.3 

47.4 

310.3 


CITIES AND TOWNS OF 2000 OR MORE PEOPLE; 

CENSUS OF 1900 


Alameda . . . . 
Auburn . . . . 

Bakersfield . . . 
Benicia . . . . 
Berkeley .... 
Chico. 


16,464 

1,456 

4,836 

2,751 

13,214 

2,640 


Eureka 
Fresno . , 

Grass Valley 
Hanford . 
Long Beach 
Los Angeles 


7,327 

12,470 

4,719 

2,929 

2,252 

102,479 





















































640 


GEOGRAPHY OF CALIFORNIA 


Marysville . . , 

Modesto . . . . 

Napa . . . . . 

Nevada City . . 

Oakland . . . . 

Pasadena . . . 

Petaluma . . . 
Pomona . . . . 

Red Bluff . . . 

Redding . . . . 

Redlands. . . . 

Riverside . . . 

Sacramento . . . 

Salinas . . . . 

San Bernardino . 
San Buenaventura 
San Diego . . . 


3,497 

San Francisco. 



342,782 

2,024 

San Jos6. 



21,500 

4,036 

San Leandro . 



2,253 

3,250 

San Luis Obispo .... 



3,021 

66,960 

San Rafael. 



3,879 

9,117 

Santa Ana. 



4,933 

3,871 

Santa Barbara. 



6,587 

5,526 

Santa Clara. 



3,650 

2,750 

Santa Cruz. 



5,659 

2,946 

Santa Monica. 



3,057 

4,797 

Santa Rosa. 



6,673 

7,973 

Stockton . 



17,506 

29,282 

Tulare. 


• 

2,216 

3,304 

Vallejo. 



7,965 

6,150 

Visalia. 



3,085 

2,470 

Watsonville. 



3,528 

17,700 

W oodland. 



2,886 


HEIGHT OF SOME OF THE IMPORTANT MOUNTAIN PEAKS 
Sierra Nevada and Cascade Range 


Mount Whitney.*14,501 Mount Humphrey.13,984 

Mount Williamson.*14,384 Mount Brewer.*13,517 

Mount Shasta.* 14,380 Mount Haeckel.13,850 

Mount Jordan. 14,275 Mount Darwin.13,841 

White Mountain Peak .... 14,200 Mount Goddard.13,555 

North Palisade. 14,254 Mount Ritter.*13,156 

Split Mountain.14,051 Mount Lyell.*13,090 

Middle Palisade. 14,049 Mount Dana.* 13,050 

Mount Tyndall.* 14,025 Lassen Peak.* 10,437 

Mount Langley.*14,042 Pyramid Peak.*10,020 

Mount Barnard.* 14,003 Kaweah Peak.* 13,816 

Southern California 

Mount Wilson. 6,000 Reyes Peak . *7,488 

Mount San Jacinto.* 10,805 Cucamonga Peak.*8,911 

Mount San Bernardino . . . .*10,630 Cuyamaca Peak.*6,515 

San Antonio Peak.*10,080 San Gabriel Peak.*6,152 

Mount Pinos.*8,826 Santiago Peak.*5,680 

Echo Mountain.*3,219 Topo Topo Bluff.*6,351 

Coast Ranges 

Mount Linn.*8,604 Mount Hamilton.*4,209 

North Yally Bally.*8,000 Mount Diablo.*3,849 

Mount Junipero Serra f . . . 5,600 Mount Bielowski ....... 3,269 

Mount St. Helena. 4,343 Santa Ynez Mountains . . . . *4,292 

Mount Konocti. 4,246 Mount Tamalpais.*2,604 

Klamath Mountains 

Thompson’s Peak.* 7,752 Bully Choop.*7,073 

Mount Eddy.*9,151 Mount Bally.*6,246 

Mount Scott.*7,400 Cottonwood Peak.*6,740 


* U. 8. Geological Survey. 


+ Formerly San Lucia Peak, 


























































STJMMA R Y 


641 


THE COUNTIES OF CALIFORNIA 


County 

Date 

of Or- 
gani- 

| zation 

-- 

Area 
Sq. Mi 

A ssessed 
Valuation 1907 

Popula¬ 
tion, Cen¬ 
sus 19(10 

Origin or Meaning of 
Name of County 

County Seat 

Alameda . . 

1853 

840 

170,817,591 

130,1.97 

Shady Walk 

Oakland 

Alpine . . . 

1804 

575 

507,052 

509 

The Alps 

Markleeville 

Amador . 

1854 

508 

5,890,793 

11,110 

Lover 

Jackson 

Butte . . . 

1850 

1,704 

19,094,301 

17,117 

Sutter Buttes 

Oroville 

Calaveras . . 

1850 

990 

0,493,727 

11,200 

Skulls 

San Andreas 

Colusa . . . 

1860 

1,080 

13,073,099 

7,304 

Indian Tribe 

Colusa 

Contra Costa . 

1850 

750 

27,122,288 

18,040 

Opposite Coast 

Martinez 

Del Norte . . 

1857 

1,540 

3,003,490 

2,408 

The North 

Crescent City 

El Dorado . 

1850 

1,891 

5,722,055 

8,980 

Land of Gold 

1‘lacerville 

Fresno . . . 

1850 

6,000 

40,923,383 

37,8G2 

Ash Tree 

Fresno 

Glenn . . . 

1891 

1,400 

11,949,5G1 

5,150 

I)r. Hugh J. Glenn 

Willows 

Humboldt . . 

1863 

3,507 

28,242,910 

27,104 

Baron Alexander 
von Humboldt 

Eureka 

Imperial . . . 

1907 

4,140 

7,493,418 

New 

County 

From Imperial 
Valley 

El Centro 

Inyo .... 

1800 

10,224 

3,501,470 

4,377 

Indian Tribe 

Independence 

Kern .... 

1800 

8,159 

30,149,898 

10,480 

Lieutenant Kern 

Bakersfield 

Kings.... 

1893 

1,200 

9,045,504 

9,871 

Kings River 

Hanford 

Lake .... 

1801 

1,332 

3,657,340 

0,007 

Clear Lake 

Lakeport 

Lassen . . . 

1804 

4,750 

5,841,333 

4,511 

Feter Lassen 

Susanville 

Los Angeles 

I860 

3,880 

384,051,740 

170,298 

The Angels 

Los Angeles 

Madera . . . 

1893 

2,140 

8,458,229 

0,304 

Timber 

Madera 

Marin . . 

1850 

510 

10,515,214 

15,702 

Indian Chief 

San Rafael 

Mariposa 

1850 

1,580 

2,342,192 

4,720 

Butterfly 

Mariposa 

Mendocino . . 

1850 

3,400 

14,571,522 

20,405 

Mendoza — Vice¬ 
roy of Mexico 

Ukiah 

Merced . . . 

1855 

1, 1 50 

17,099,940 

9,215 

Mercy 

Merced 

Modoc . . . 

1874 

4,097 

4,920,148 

5,070 

Modoc Indians 

Alturas 

Mono.... 

1801 

2,790 

1,225,044 

2,107 

Good Looking 

Bridgeport 

Monterey 

1850 

3,450 

23,217,230 

19,380 

Mountain King 

Salinas 

Napa .... 

1850 

800 

14,997,400 

10,451 

Fish 

Napa City 

Nevada . . 

1851 

958 

7,800,352 

17,789 

Snowy 

Nevada City 

Orange . . . 

1889 

780 

18,411,915 

19,090 

Orange Groves 

Santa Ana 

l’lacer . . . 

1851 

1,484 

10,902.045 

15,780 

The Place of Gold 

Auburn 

Plumas . . 

1854 

2,301 

4.040,738 

4,057 

Feathers 

Quincy 

Riverside 

1893 

7,008 

21,029,475 

17,897 

City of Riverside 

Riverside 

Sacramento . 

1850 

1,007 

54,857,080 

45,915 

Sacrament 

Sacramento 

San Benito . 

1874 

1,470 

7,040,787 

0,033 

St. Benedict 

Hollister 

San Bernardino 

1853 

20,055 

30,352,957 

27,929 

Bold as a Bear 

San Bernar¬ 
dino 

San Diego . . 

1850 

4,877 

20,783,130 

36,090 

St. James 

San Diego 

San Francisco . 

1850 

42 

429,800,009 

342,782 

St. Francis Mission 

San Francisco 

San Joaquin 

1860 

1,370 

42,500,778 

35,452 

St. Joachim 

Stockton 


2 T 

























































642 


GEOGRAPHY OF CALIFORNIA 


THE COUNTIES OF CALIFORNIA ( Continued ) 



Date 

of Or¬ 
ganiza¬ 
tion 

Area 
Sq. Mi. 

Assessed 
Valuation 1907 

Popula¬ 
tion, Cen¬ 
sus 1900 

Origin or Meaning of 
Name of County 

County Seat 

San Luis Obispo 

1850 

3,500 

16,398,462 

16,637 

St. Louis .the 
Bishop 

San Luis 
Obispo 

San Mateo . . 

1856 

470 

24,201,540 

12,094- 

St. Matthew 

Redwood City 

Santa Barbara . 

1850 

2,450 

24,086,970 

18,934 

St. Barbara 

Santa Bar¬ 
bara 

Santa Clara 

1850 

1,355 

60,393,432 

60,216 

St. Clara 

San Jos£ 

Santa Cruz . . 

1850 

425 

15,210,096 

21,512 

Holy Cross 

Santa Cruz 

Shasta . . . 

1850 

4,050 

14,544,355 

17,318 

Chaste 

Redding 

Sierra . . . 

1852 

910 

2,308,890 

4,017 

Mountain Chain 

Downieville 

Siskiyou . . . 

1852 

6,078 

15,943,260 

16,962 

Indian Tribe 

Yreka 

Solano . . . 

1850 

911 

20,322,997 

24,143 

East Wind 

Fairfield 

Sonoma . . 

1850 

1,540 

33,877,918 

38,480 

Valley of the 

Moon 

Santa Rosa 

Stanislaus . 

1854 

1,486 

16,081,091 

9,550 

Chief Estanislao 

Modesto 

Sutter . . . 

1850 

611 

7,157,242 

5,886 

John A. Sutter 

Yuba City 

Tehama . . . 

1856 

3,200 

13,207,073 

10,996 

Indian Tribe 

Red Bluff 

Trinity . . . 

1850 

3,276 

2,740,656 

4,383 

Trinity Sunday 

Weaverville 

Tulare . . . 

1852 

4,863 

23,851,394 

18,375 

Valley of the Tules 

Visalia 

Tuolumne . . 

1850 

2,282 

7,762,427 

11,166 

Stone House or 
Cave 

Sonora 

Ventura . . . 

1872 

1,850 

11,921,277 

14,367 

(Good) Luck 

San Buena¬ 
ventura 

Yolo . . . . 

1850 

1,017 

17,665,533 

13,618 

A Place Thick 

with Rushes 

Woodland 

Yuba .... 

1850 

625 

6,912,397 

8,620 

Wild Grape 

Marysville 


GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES 


Geographical names in California are derived mainly from three sources : Spanish, 
Indian, and English. In the calendar of the early missionaries, each day was sacred to 
one of the saints, and so they named new places according to the name of the saint on 
whose day the places were reached or discovered. 

The names of the male saints begin with San, of the female with Santa. 


San Bruno 
San Buenaventura 
San Carlos 
San Gabriel 
San Jos6 
San Juan 
San Leandro 
San Lucas 
San Luis Rey 
San Miguel 
San Rafael 


san broo'no 

• 

san bwa'-na-ven-too'ra 

san kar'loce 

san ga-bre-eb 

san ho-sa/ 

san boo an' 

san la-an'dro 

san loo'kas 

san ldo'ees ra 

san me-ghel 

san ra-fa/el 


St. Bruno 
St. Bonaventuie 
St. Charles 
St. Gabriel 
St. Joseph 
St. John 
St. Leander 
St. Luke 
St. Louis King 
St. Michael 
St. Raphael 




















SUMMARY 


043 


Santa Ana 

san'ta a'na 

St. Ann 

Santa Catalina 

san'ta ka-ta-lee'nii, 

St. Catherine 

Santa Inez 

san'ta e-nes' 

St. Agnes 

Santa Isabel 

san'ta e-sa-bel' 

St. Elizabeth 

Santa Lucia 

san'ta lob-se'-a 

St. Lucy 

Santa Margarita 

san'ta mar-ga-ree'tii 

St. Margaret 

Santa Maria 

san'ta ma-ree'a 

St. Mary 

Santa Paula 

san'ta pow'la 

St. Paula 

Santa Rosa 

san'ta ro'za 

St. Rose 

Many places were named from some characteristic feature or incident : — 

Agua Fria 

a'gwa free'a 

Cold Water 

Alcatraz 

al'ka-tras 

Pelican 

Almaden 

al-ma-d8n' 

The Mine 

Arroyo Seco 

ar-ro'yo sa'ko 

Dry Creek 

Arroyo Grande 

ar-ro'yo gran'da 

Large Creek 

Benicia 

be-nish'i-a 

Venice 

Buena Vista 

bwa'nii ves'ta 

Good View 

Caliente 

kii-le-an'te 

Hot 

Carquinez 

kar-kee'nez 

Name of Indian Tribe 

Carpenteria 

kar-pen-ta-ree'a 

Carpenter Shop 

Cazadero 

caz-a-da'ro 

Place for Pursuing Game 

Cerritos 

cer-ree'toce 

Little Hills 

Cienega 

se-5/na-ga 

Marsh 

Colorado 

kol-o-rah'do 

Red 

Coyote 

ko-yo'til 

A Species of Wolf 

El Toro 

el to'ro 

The Bull 

Escondido 

6s-kon-dee'do 

Hidden 

Far ral ones 

far-ra-lon'es 

Points of Rock in the Sea 

Gabilan 

gji-ve-lan' 

Sparrow Hawk 

Guadalupe 

gwa-da-loo'pil 

Wolf River 

La Jolla 

la ho'yah 

The Jewel 

Lobos 

lo'boce 

Wolves 

Los Gatos 

loce gii'tos 

The Cats 

Los Olivos 

loce ol-e'voce 

The Olive Trees 

Manzanita 

man-sa-nee'tah 

Little Apple 

Milpitas 

mil-pee'tas 

Meadow 

Monte Diablo 

mon'ta de-ii'blo 

Devil Mountain 

Pajaro 

pa'ha-ro 

Bird 

Palo Alto 

pii'lo al'to 

Tall Tree 

Paraiso 

pa-ra-ee'so 

Paradise 

Paso Robles 

pii'so ro'blgs 

Oak Pass 

Pescadero 

pes-kii-da'ro 

Fishmonger 

Pinole 

pe-no'la 

A Fermented Drink 

Plaza 

plii'za 

Public Square 

Presidio 

pra-see'de-o 

Garrison 

Ihinta Arenas 

pun'ta ii-ni'nas 

Sandy Point 

Puente 

poo-6n't«a 

Bridge 

Salinas 

sa-lee'nas 

Salt Places 

Sierra Nevada 

se-er'ra na-va'da 

Snowy Range 


644 


GEOGRAPHY OF CALIFORNIA 


Soledad 

sol-a-dad' 


Solitude 

Sonora 

so-no'rah 


Zither 

Tejon 

ta-hon' 


Badger 

Tres Pinos 

tres pee'noce 

Three Pines 

The following 

are some of the names derived from the old Spanish families : — 

Alvarado 

al-va-rah'do 

Coronado 

cor-o-nah'do 

Alviso 

al-ve'so 

Martinez 

mar-tee'n6z 

Arguello 

ar-gwa/lo 

Pacheco 

pa-cha'ko 

Bodega 

bo-da'ga 

Sunol 

sdon-yoP 

Castroville 

kasTro-vil 

Vacaville 

va/ka-vil 

Chico 

chee'ko 

Vallejo 

val-la'ho 

The following 

are some of the many Indian 

names. 

Most of them are names of 

tribes: — 




Cuyama 

kl-a/ma 



Klamath 

k la/math 


Indians 

Mohave 

mo-ha/va' 


Three Mountains 

Mokelumne 

mo-kel'oum-ne 



Petaluma 

pet-aloo'ma 


Little Mound 

Sequoia 

se-quoi'ah 


Name of a Cherokee Chief 

Soquel 

so-kel' 



Suisun 

soo-e'sbbn 

• 


Tahoe 

ta-ho' 


Big Water 

Teliacliapi 

te-hach'e-pa 


Valley of the Oaks 

Temescal 

tem-es-kal' 


A Sweatbox 

Tomales 

to-ma'les 


A Mexican Food 

Yosemite 

yo-sem'i-te 


Grizzly Bear 

Y reka 

wi-re'ka 


White, Indian Name of 


Mt. Shasta 


The name Tamalpais is a compound of Indian and Spanish. Tamal was the name 
of a tribe of Indians, and pais is the Spanish for country ; hence, the country of the 
Tamal Indians. 

The Spanish names are chiefly confined to the Coast Ranges and the southern part 
of the state. The names in the Sierra Nevada and Klamath mountains and the Great 
Valley were mostly given after the Americans came. 

Among the places named for Americans are: Stockton, Sutter, Kern, Lassen, 
Murphy, Angel, Carson, Downie, Weaver, Heald, Folsom, Gilroy, Hollister, Humboldt, 
Fremont, and others. These men were either early residents of the state, or explorers. 


INDEX 


Agriculture, 592-599. 

Alcatraz Island, 561. 

Alfalfa, 586, 590, 591, 595. 

Alkali, 582. 

Almonds, 606. 

Angel Island, 562, Fig. 526. 

Antimony, 612. 

Appellate Courts, 632. 

Apples, 606. 

Apricots, 586, 607. 

Area of California, 551. 

Army transports, 622. 

Artesian wells, 585. 

Artificial gas, 618. 

Asparagus, 569. 

Asphaltuin, 612, 615, 617. 

Bahia, 601. 

Bakersfield, 634. 

Barley, 586, 595. 

Barstow, 621. 

Beans, 569, 595. 

Beckwourth Pass, 581, 621. 

Beet sugar, 619. 

Benzine, 616. 

Berkeley, 630, 632. 

Berries, 595. 

Beryl, 612, 615. 

Big Basin, 610, Fig. 609. 

Big Trees, 575, 610. 

Bituminous rock, 612, 615. 

Blind, Institution for the Deaf and the, 630. 
Board of supervisors, 632. 

Borax, 583, 618. 

Brazil, 601. 

Brick clay, 612, 615. 

British Columbia, 624. 

Buena Vista Lake, 566. 

Building materials, 612, 615. 

Burbank, Luther, 605. 

Burbank School, 605. 

Butte County, 615. 

Butter, 590, 592, 593. 

Cabrillo, 624. 

Cactus, spineless, 605. 


1 Cajon Pass, 581, 621. 

Calaveras Grove, 575. 

[ California, Area of, 551. 

California, Gulf of, 584. 

California Northwestern Railroad, 621. 
Canada, 599. 

I Canneries, 593, 019. 

! Canons, 571, 572, 579, 582, Figs. 540, 546. 
Cantaloupes, 586. 

Cape Mendocino, 562. 

Capes, 562. 

I Captain Jack, 581. 

| Carquinez Straits, 555, 557. 

Cascade Range, 580. 

Cattle, 593, 595, 619. 

Cedar, 611. 

Celery, 569. 

I Cement, 612; works, 619. 

Central California, 605. 

Central Pacific Railroad, 581,621, Fig. 563. 
Cherries, 606. 

Chicago, 621. 

| Chickens, 593-594. 

Chico, 630. 

| Chile, 618. 

Cities, 634 635 ; population of, 639. 

Citrus fruits, 601-603; in Central Califor¬ 
nia, 605; in Northern California, 605. 
Clay, Brick, 612, 615. 

Clear Lake, 564, Fig. 539. 

Climate, 551, 555, 564, 566, 582, Fig. 564. 
Coal, 612 ; lignite, 615. 

Coast Range, 552, 554, 661, 566, 692, 610, 
615, Fig. 516. 

Coast Region, 552, 554-565, 566, 573, 621. 
Colleges, 627, 632; sectarian, 632. 

Colorado Desert, 582. 

Colorado River, 584, 585, 621. 

Commerce, 620, 622, 634; with Orient, 
627. 

Copper, 583, 612, 614; smelting, 619, 
Fig. 614. 

Corn, 593. 

Coronado, 665. 

Cottonwoods, 566. 

Counties, 632; population of, 641. 


43— A ({ 


645 


INDEX 



County Superior Courts, 632. 

Cows, milch, 595. 

Creameries, 592, G19. 

Crescent City, G22. 

Dairy products, value of, 638. 

Dairying, 589-592. 

Deaf and Blind, Institution for the, G30. 
Death Valley, 582. 

Deciduous fruits, GOG. 

Del Norte County, G10. 

Department of Agriculture, G01. 

Desert, 551, 582, 583, 584, 585, G18, G2G. 
Desert Province, 553. 

Diablo, Mt., G15. 

Diamond, 612, 615. 

Distillate, 616. 

Donner Pass, 581, Fig. 563. 

Drake, 624. 

Dredger mining, 613, Fig. 613. 

Dry ranching, 595. 

Earthquakes, 623-624. 

Education and Government, 627-632. 
Eggs, 593, 594; value of, 638. 

El Dorado County, 571. 

Electric railroads, 622. 

Electricity, 573, 618. 

Elevation of surface of California, 551. 
Eureka, 634. 

Factories, 618, 619; canneries, 593, 619; 
creameries, 592, 619; flour mills, 619; 
sawmills, 611, 619; oil refineries, 616,’ 
619; sugar refineries, 619; smelters, 
619 ; tanneries, 619 ; woolen mills, 619. 
Fall River, 580. 

Farallone Islands, 561, Fig. 517. 

Farm animals and products, value of, 639. 
Farm products, 638. 

Fertilizers, 618. 

Field crops, value of, 638-639. 

Fir, 611. 

Fisheries, value of, 639. 

Fishing, 579, Fig. 560. 

Flour mills, 619. 

Fogs, 555, 566. 

Forest, petrified, 612. 

Forest products, value of, 639. 

Foresters, 610. 


Forests, 571, 574, 576, 579. 

Forts, 561. 

Foundries, 619. 

Fresno, 606, 634. 

Fresno County, 616. 

Fruit raising, 571, 593, 599-608. 

Garden products, value of, 638. 

Garnet, 612. 

Gas, artificial, 618; natural, 612, 618. 
Gasoline, 616. 

Gem stones, 583, 612, 615. 

Goat Island, 561, Fig. 525. 

Gold, 571, 572, 583, 612; smelting, 619. 
Golden Gate, 558. 

Golden State, 612. 

Government, 632. 

Governor, 632. 

Grain, 593, 595. 

Grain and grass hay and alfalfa, value 
of, 638. 

Granite, 612, 615. 

Grape fruit, 601. 

Grapes, 586, 006; wine grapes, 606, Fig. 
603. 

Great Valley, 552, 621. 

Great Valley Region, 552, 555, 565-570, 
573, 595, 621. 

Grizzly Giant, 576. 

Harbors, 555-558. 

Hartnell Gusher, 617. 

Hay, 586, 593 ; value of, 638. 

Health resorts, 564. 

Height of mountains, 640. 

Hides, 619. 

High Sierras, 576, 579, Fig. 556. 

Hogs, 595. 

Honey, 608, Fig. 606; value of, 638. 

Hops, 593, 606, Fig. 602. 

Horses, 595. 

Humboldt Bay, 558, 622, Fig. 532 . 
Humboldt County, 610. 

Hume Prune Orchard, 607. 

Huntington Beach, 565. 

Immigration, 626. 

Imperial County, 585-586. 

Indian names, 643-644. 

Indians, 624; Modoc, 581. 








INDEX 


647 


Industrial School, 030. 

Inyo County, 583, G23. 
lone, 030. 

Iron, G12, 014. 

Irrigation, 5GG, 509, 585, 588. 

Islands, 5G1-5G2. 

Judicial Department, G32. 

Justice, Courts of, 032. 

Kaweah River, 5G0. 

Kern County, G10, Fig. 015. 

Kern River, 550, 578, Fig. 558. 

Kern River oil fields, 017. 

Kerosene, 010. 

Kings River, 500, 578. 

Klamath Province, 553. 

Kunzite, 015. 

Lake County, 504. 

Lakes, 600, 579, 582. 

Lassen County, 580. 

Lassen Peak, 580. 

Lead, 583, 012, 014; smelting, 019. 
Leather, 019. 

Legislature, State, 032, Fig. 030. 

Leland Stanford University, 032. 

Lemons, 001, 005-000. 

Levees, 509. 

Lignite, 015. 

Lime, 012, 015. 

Lime (fruit), 001. 

Long Beach, 5G5. 

Los Angeles, 558, 588, 021, 020, 030, 032, 
034, Figs. 154, 674, 025. 

Los Angeles County, 001, 010. 
Lubricating oil, 010. 

Lumber, shipping, G22. 

Lumbering, 671, 608-612, Figs. 140, 143, 
008, 010. 

Luther Burbank School, 005. 

Manufacturing, 618-620. 

Marble, 012, 015. 

Mare Island, 501, Fig. 533. 

Mariposa County, 571, 570, Fig. 152. 
Match factories, 019. 

Melons, 580. 

Mendocino County, 010, 023. 

Men-of-vvar, 022. 


Merced River, 570. 

Mexico, 001, 024. 

Military prison, 501. 

Milk, 592. 

Mineral products, 583, 612-618 ; value of, 
039. 

Mineral springs, 504. 

Mining, 571, 583; dredger, 012—014; 
hydraulic, 509, 571, 572, Fig. 130; 
placer, 571, 572, Fig. 548; quartz, 572, 
Fig. 138. 

Mining machinery, 019. 

Missions, Spanish, 020. 

Modoc County, 581. 

Modoc Indians, 581. 

Modoc War, 581. 

Mojave Desert, 582, 021. 

Monterey, 505. 

Monterey Bay, 558, 620, Fig. 531. 
Monterey County, 010. 

Morro Rock, 502, Fig. 530. 

Mother Lode, 571, 012, 027. 

Mt. Diablo Range, 555. 

Mountains, 551, 552, 553, 554, 570, 571, 
582, 580, 615, 020, 021; growth of, 023 ; 
height of, 040. 

Napa, 000, 015. 

Naphtha, 010. 

National forests, 575. 

Natural gas, 012, 018. 

Naval training station, 501. 

Navy yard, 501. 

Needles, 021. 

Nevada, 573, 021. 

New Orleans, 021. 

New York, 021. 

Newport, 505. 

Niter, 583. 

Normal Schools, 027. 

Northern California, 005. 

Oak trees, 500. 

Oakland, 501, 034. 

Occidental College, 032. 

Ocean currents, 555. 

Ocean Park, 505. 

Ogden, 021. 

Oil, lubricating, 010. 

| Oil, mineral, 012, 010. 





648 


INDEX 


Oil fields, 616-618, Fig. 615. 

Olive oil, 608; factories, 619. 

Olives, 608, Fig. 605. 

Onions, 569. 

Opal, 583, 612, 615. 

Oranges, 589, 601-603, 605, Figs. 591, 
594, 596. 

Orchards, 593, 608; value of products, 
638. 

Oregon, 580, 610, 621. 

Orphan schools, 632. 

Owens Lake, 583. 

Pacific Grove, 565. 

Palo Alto, 632. 

Panama Canal, 620. 

Paraffin, 616. 

Parochial schools, 632. « 

Peaches, 586,607. 

Pears, 607. 

Petrified forest, 612. 

Petroleum, 612, 615, 616-618. 

Pine, 611 ; yellow, 611 ; sugar, 611. 

Pismo, 565. 

Pitt River, 580. 

Plateau, volcanic, 580. 

Platinum, 612. 

Pleasure resorts, 565, Fig. 538. 

Point Conception, 562, Fig. 537. 

Point Richmond, 616. 

Police Courts, 632. 

Polytechnic school, 630. 

Pomelos, 601. 

Pomona College, 632. 

Population, of cities and towns, 639-640 ; 

of counties, 641-642 ; of state, 639. 
Portland, 621. 

Potato, 605. 

Poultry, 593-594 ; value of, 638. 

Powder works, 619. 

Private schools, 630. 

Products of the soil, value of, 638-639. 
Prunes, 607, Figs. 600-604. 

Public schools, 627, Figs. 625-626. 

Quicksilver, 612, 615. 

Railroads, 593, 620-622 ; electric, 622. 
Rainfall, 551, 504, 566, 574. 

Raisins, 606, Fig. 145. 


Ranching, 593, 595. 

Rangers, 575, 610, Fig. 554. 

Reclaimed land, 569. 

Redwood, 575, 610. 

Refineries, oil, 616; sugar, 619, Fig. 616. 
Revolutionary War, 624. 

Rivers, 572-575. 

Riverside County, 601, 615. 

Sacramento, 606, 634, 635. 

Sacramento River, 557, 569. 
Sacramento-San Joaquin River, 557. 
Sacramento Valley, 569, 621, Fig. 542. 
Salinas, 606. 

Salt, 583, 584. 

Salt Lake Railroad, 621. 

Salton Sea, 582, 583, 584. 

San Benito County, 615. 

San Bernardino, 621. 

San Bernardino, Mt., 555. 

San Bernardino County, 583, 601, 615. 

San Bernardino Mountains, 582, 585. 

San Buenaventura, 626. 

San Diego, 607, 621, 622, 626, 630, 634. 
San Diego Bay, 558, Fig. 529. 

San Diego County, 615. 

San Francisco, 561, 621, 622, 623, 626, 
630, 634, Figs. 525, 526. 

San Francisco Bay, 555, 558, 619, 626. 

San Gabriel, 582. 

San Gorgonio Pass, 581. 

San Jacinto Mountains, 582, 585. 

San Joaquin, 606. 

San Joaquin River, 557, 565, 569. 

San Joaquin Valley, 566, Fig. 542. 

San Josd, 606, 630, 632. 

San Luis Buttes, 562. 

San Luis Obispo, 562, 630. 

San Luis Obispo County, 615. 

San Pedro, 558. 

Sandstone, 612, 615. 

Santa Barbara, 565, 626. 

Santa Barbara Channel, 562. 

Santa Barbara County, 562, 616, 617. 

Santa Barbara Islands, 562. 

Santa Catalina, 565. 

Santa Clara, 626, 632. 

Santa Clara College, 632. 

Santa Clara County, 615. 

Santa Clara Valley, 555, 607. 







INDEX 


640 


Santa Cruz, 565. 

Santa Cruz County, (510. 

Santa F<* Railroad, 581, 021. 

Santa Monica, 505. 

Santa Rosa, 600, 034. 

Sawmills, Oil. 

Schools, 627-632; private, 030; public, 
027 ; special, 030. 

Sectarian colleges, 637. 

Sequoia, Gigantea, 575; Sempervirens, 
575. 

Shasta County, 580. 

Shasta daisy, (505. 

Shasta, Mt., 580. 

Sheep, 593, 595, 619. 

Shipbuilding, 562, 019. 

Shipping, 022. 

Sierra Madre Mountains, 582, 586. 

Sierra Nevada Mountains, 553, 505, 5(5(5, 
5*0, 572, 573, 575, 570, (512 ; streams of, 
57 2, (518, (521, 02 7, Figs. 540, 563. 

Sierra Region, 552, 570-581. 

Silver, 583, 012 ; smelting, 019. 

Siskiyou County, 580. 

Slate, 012. 

Smelters, (519. 

Soda, 583, Fig. 500. 

Soda Bay, 564. 

Sonoma County, 012, 020. 

Sorghum, 580. 

Southern California, 553, 555, 5(54, 582- 
589, 595, 615, 623. 

Southern Pacific Railroad, 581, 010, (520. 
Spain, 024. 

Spaniards, 024, 620. 

Special schools, 630. 

9 

Standard Oil Company, 010. 

Stanford University, (532. 

Statehood, Admission of California to, 
627. 

Steamship lines, 022. 

Stock raising, 571, 505. 

Stockton, 034. 

Strawberries, (50(5. 

Sugar beets, 595. 

Sugar pine, Oil. 

Sugar refineries, 019. 

Supreme Court, 632. 

Tahoe, Lake, 578, Fig. 659. 


Tanneries, 619. 

Tehachapi Loop, 500. 

Tehachapi Mountains, 504, 500, 582. 
Tehachapi Pass, 5(50, 021. 

Timber, 575, 570, 608-612. 

Tin, 612. 

Tourmaline, 612, 015. 

Transportation, 620-622. 

Trolley lines, 022. 

Tulare, 006. 

Tulare County, (505. 

Tulare Lake, 560. 

Tide Land, 569. 

Tuolumne Grove, 575. 

Turquoise, 583, 012, 015. 

United States Government, 501, 502, 575, 
Fig. 85. 

Universities, 032. 

University of California, 032. 

University of the Pacific, 032. 

University of Southern California, 632. 

Vacaville, 006. 

Valleys, 551, 505, 571, 582, 580, 592, 597, 
(520. 

Vegetables, 58(5, 595. 

Ventura County, 502, 01(5. 

Vineyards, 593, 000 ; value of products, 
638. 

Virginia, (524. 

Volcanic Plateau, 553, 580. 

Volcanoes, 580, 023. 

Walnuts, 006. 

War vessels, 022. 

Water power, 573, 018. 

Watsonville, 600. 

Western Pacific Railroad, 581, 021. 
Wheat, 595; shipping, 022. 

Whittier, 030. 

Willows, 5(50. 

Winds, 552, 555. 

Wine. 593, 019. 

Wine grapes, 000. 

Wineries, 019. 

Woolen mills, 019. 

Yellow pine, 611. 

Yosemite Falls, 576, Fig. A. 

Yosemite Valley, 676, Fig. 557. 



















* 










































APPENDIX 

TABLES OF AREA, POPULATION, ETC. 




SIZE OF THE EARTH 

Length of the Earth’s Diameter at the 

Equator (miles), 7,926 

Length of Equator (miles), 24/902 


The Earth’s Surface (square miles), 196,971,984 
Total Area of Oceans (square miles), 141,486,000 


Pacific 


SJ,660,000 
•Square A/ites 

jtei 


Atlantic 



33,72 QO 00 


Antarctic 


30,60JO 00 


Indian, 


16,720.000 


Arctic 


Arctic VJQi.000 


Relative areas of oceans. I he Antarctic includes the great southern sea surrounding 

the south pole. 


CONTINENTS AND PRINCIPAL 


COUNTRIES, COLONIES, ETC. 


North America, ’00. 

Alaska, ’00. 

Bahama Isds., ’00... 
Bermuda Isds., ’01... 
British Honduras, ’00 
Canada, *06-7. 


Area in Popula- 

Square Miles tion 

...8,614,658 100,913,840 

....590,884 63,592 

.5,450 59,142 

.20 17,535 

. 7,562 41,007 

..3,745,570 5,983,560 


Costa Rica, ’06.18,400 

Cuba, ’99.45,883 

Greenland.46,740 

Guatemala, ’03.4S,290 

Haiti, ’07-8.10,204 


341,590 
1,722,953 
11,893 
1,842,134 
1,400,000 


Honduras, ’05.46,250 500,114 

Jamaica,’07.4,200 830,261 

Mexico, ’00...767,005 13,607,259 

Newfoundland and Labrador, 

’06-7.162,730 232,780 

Nicaragua, ’07-8 .49,200 428,191 


Brazil, ’07-8. 

Chile, ’07-8. 

Colombia, ’07-8. 

Area in 
Square Milos 

.438,436 

Popula¬ 

tion 

19,910,646 

5,000,000 

4,500,000 

Ecuador, ’07-S. 

Falkland Isds., ’06. 

Galapagos Isds., ’06. 

Guiana, British, ’06 .... 
Guiana, Dutch, ’05. 

.2,400 

.90.277 

1,500,000 

2,065 

400 

•306,959 

75,465 

Guiana, French. 

Juan Fernandez.... 


32,910 

Paraguay, ’07-8. 

Peru, ’0t-S.... '.. 

South Georgia Isds., ‘06.. 

.1,000 

635,571 

2,971,814 

Tobago, ’01. 

Trinidad Isd., ’01. 

Uruguay, ’07-8. 

Venezuela, ’07-8. 

.114 

.1,754 

.72,210 

18,750 

255,148 

1,103.040 

2,328,527 


Panama, ’07-8.82,280 361,000 

St. Croix, ’90 .84 19,783 

St. John, ’90 .21 984 

St. Thomas, ’90.82 12,019 

Salvador, ’07-8.7,225 1,006,’S48 

United States. See j>. iii. 

South America.7,960,733 46,879,001 

Argentina, ’07-8.1,135,840 5,974,771 

Bolivia, ’07-8.709,000 2,267,935 


Europe . 


401,590,739 

Andorra, ’07. 

.175 

5,281 

Austria, ’00. 

.115,903 

26,150,708 

Austria-Hungary .... 

.241,830 

45,405,807 

Balearic Isds., ’97.... 

.1,860 

806,926 

Belgium, '06. 


7,288,622 

British Empire. 

....11,437,486 

892,211,617 

British Isles. 

.121,391 

44,100,281 

Bulgaria, ’07. 


4,035,620 

Corsica, '06. 

.8,867 

291.160 

Crete, ’07. 


810,200 


1 










































































11 


APPENDIX 


Area in 
Square Miles 


Croatia and Slavonia, ’00..16,423 

Denmark, ’06.15,052 

England, ’01.50,222 

Faroe Isds., ’06.540 

France, ’06.207,054 

German Empire, ’05.208,780 

Great Britain, ’01.89,030 

Greece, ’96.25,014 

Hebrides Isds.,.3,000 

Hungary, ’00.125,430 

Iceland, ’06.39,756 

Ireland, ’01. 32,360 

Italy, ’07.96,500 

Liechtenstein, ’01.65 

Luxemburg, ’06.998 

Malta, ’07. 95 

Monaco, ’00.8 

Montenegro, ’07.3,630 

Netherlands,. ’06.12,648 

Norway, ’00.124,129 


Popula¬ 

tion 

2,400,766 

2,588,819 

21,930,663 

16,349 

39,252,245 

60,641,278 

37,150,316 

2,433,806 

100,000 

19,254,559 

78,470 

4,458,775 

33,640,000 

9,477 

236,543 

206,690 

15,180 

230,000 

5,672,237 

2,240,032 


Orkney Isds., ’01.376 

Portugal, ’00 .34,254 

Prussia, ’05 ..135,134 

Eoumania, ’07.50,720 

Russia, ’06.1,862,524 


2S,6S9 

5,016,267 

37,293,324 

6,585,534 

109,354,600 


Russian Empire, ’06, 

Samos, ’07. 

San Marino, ’06. ... 

Sardinia, ’07. 

Scotland, ’01. 

Servia, ’05. 

Shetland Isds., ’01.. 

Sicily, ’07. 

Spain, ’00. 

Sweden, ’06. 


8,647,657 149,299,300 

.180 53,400 

.38 11,439 

....9,306 841,417 

...30,405 4,472,103 

...18,650 2,688,025 

.551 28,185 

....9,935 3,571,771 

..190,050 1S,618,0S6 

..172,876 5,337,055 


Switzerland, ’05. 

Turkey (in Europe), ’07 
Turkish Empire, ’07.... 
Wales, ’06-7. 

Asia. 


...15,976 3,463,609 

...65,350 6,130,200 

1,157,860 24,813,700 

....7,446 1,455,930 

14,294,282 850,000,000 


Aden, ’01..75 

Afghanistan, ‘07.250,000 

Arabia, ’07 .170,000 

Baluchistan, ’01.131,855 

Bhutan, ’07. 16’S00 


41,222 

400,000 

1,050,000 

914,551 

200,000 


Bokhara, ’07.. 

Burma, ’01. 

Ceylon, ’01. 

China (proper), ’06. 
Chinese Empire, ’07 


...80,000 1,250,000 
..236,000 10,490,624 
...25,332 3,578,333 
1,532,420 407,253,030 
4,277,170 438,214,000 


Chinese Turkestan, '06.550,340 

Cyprus, ’07.3,580 

Formosa, ’03.13,458 

French India, ’06.196 

French Indo-China, ’06.256,000 


1,200,000 

237,000 

2,860,374 

272,113 

18,230,000 


In<Ra, ’01.1,097,901 

Japan, ’03.147,655 

Khiva, ’07.22,320 

Korea, ’02 .71,000 

Manchuria, ’06 .. .363,610 


232,072,832 

46,732,138 

800,000 

10,000,000 

16,000,000 


Mongolia, ’06.1,367,600 2,600,000 

Nepal, ’07.54,000 5,000,000 

Oman, 07.82,000 800,000 

Palestine, ’01.10,000 400,000 

Persia , ’07.628,000 9,500,000 


Area in 
Square Miles 


Russian Turkestan,’06.400,770 

Siam, ’07.212,200 

Siberia, ’06.4,7S6,730 


Popula¬ 

tion 

5.746.600 
6,686,S46 

6.740.600 


Straits Settlement, ’06-7 

Sungaria, ’01. 

Tibet, ’06. 

Turkey in Asia, ’07. 


-.1,600 611,790 

147,950 600,000 

433,200 6,500,000 

693,310 17,7S3,500 


Africa 


11,514,000 127,000,000 


Abyssinia, ’07.200,000 

Algeria (Fr.), ’06 .184,474 

Ashanti (Br.), ’91.15,000 

British Central and South 

Africa, ’06-7.964,780 

British East Africa, ’06-7 .399,090 


9-11,000,000 

5,098,322 

1,478,882 

5,800,910 

6,540,000 


British Somaliland, ’06-7.68,000 

Canary Isds. (Sp.). ’97.2,808 

Cape Colony, ’06-7.276,990 

Cape Verde Isds. (Port.), ’07_1,480 

Egypt, ’07 . 400,000 


300,000 

334,521 

2,487,690 

147,424 

9,734,405 


Egyptian Sudan, ’07... 

Eritrea (It.), ’07. 

French Kongo, ’07.... 
French Somaliland, ’07 
French Territory, ’07.. 


..950,000 2,000,000 

...88,500 450,000 

. .6SO,000 S-15,000,000 

...12,000 50,000 

4,102,900 34,092,340 


Gambia (Br.), '06-7.3,620 

German East Africa, ’05.3S4,180 

German Southwest Africa, ’05 .322,450 

Germany Territory, ’05.931,460 

Gold Coast (Br.), ’06-7.119,260 


90,060 

7,000,000 

200,000 

11,700,000 

1,697,000 


Italian Somaliland, ’07 
Kamerun (Ger.), ’05. 

Kongo State. 

Liberia. 

Madagascar (Fr.),.. .. 


100,000 400,000 

191,130 3,500,000 

900,000 30,000,000 

.43,000 2,120,000 

228,000 2,644,700 


Madeira Isds., ’00.314 

Mauritius (Br.), ’06-7.840 

Morocco, ’07.219,000 

Natal (Br.), ’06-7.35,370 


Niger Territories (Br.), ’06-7. .333,660 


134,040 

3S2,000 

5,000,000 

1,151,910 

14,000,000 


Orange River Colony (Br.), ’06-7 


.50,390 

Portuguese East Africa, ’07. . .293,400 

Portuguese Guinea, ’07.13,940 

Portuguese West Africa, ’07. ,4S4,S00 
Reunion Island (Fr.), ’07.970 


3S7,320 

3,120,000 

42,103 

4,119,000 

173,000 


St. Helena (Br.),’06-7. 46 

Sierra Leone (Br.), ’06-7.30,000 

Spanish Africa, ’07.80,580 

Togo, ’07.33,000 

Transvaal Colony (Br.), ’06-7.117,730 


3,530 

1,027,000 

291,000 

1,000,000 

1,355,440 


Tripoli (Turk.), ’07.400,000 8-13,000,000 

Tunis (Fr.), ’07.64,600 1,900,000 

Zanzibar (Br.), ’06-7.1,020 382,000 


Australia.3,065,120 4,479,840 

British New Guinea, ’06-7_90,540 350,000 

New South Wales, ’06-7.310,370 1,533,000 

Queensland, ’06-7.670,500 535,100 

South Australia and Northern 

Territory, ’06-7.903,690 383,830 

Tasmania, ’06-7.26,220 180,160 


Portuguese Indies, ’07. 
Russia in Asia, ’06.... 


....8,968 831,798 

6,207,662 21,706,300 


Victoria, ’06-7. 

Western Australia, ’06-7 


.87,880 1,238,000 

975,920 261,750 


























































































































AREA, POPULATION , ETC. 


Area in Popula- 

Square Miles tion 

East Indies and Larger Islands of 
the Pacific 


Borneo, ’07..286,743 

Celebes, ’07.71,470 

Fiji Isds. (Br.i, ’0<-7.7,740 

Hawaiian Isds. (U.S.), '00 . 6,440 

Java, ’07.50,554 


1,789,889 

884,150 

125,540 

102,407 

28,746,688 


Area in 
Square Miles 

Molucca Isds., ’07.43,864 

New Caledonia, ’07.... ” ” .7^650 

New Zealand, '06-7. . . . ilk’750 

Philippine Isds. (U.S.), *03...127,858 
Samoa Isds., ’07. 79 


Popula¬ 

tion 

410,100 

68,850 

000,020 

7,635,426 

5,800 


Solomon Isds., (Br.) ’06-7 . 8,860 150,000 

Sumatra .152,612 8,168,312 


Total Area of Continents. 

Total Population. 

(Estimate of the Royal Geographical Society.) 


.. .61,2*8, S00 
1,471,900,000 


STATES AND TERRITORIES OF TIIE UNITED STATES 


Alabama. 

Area in 
Square Miles 

Population, 
est. 1906 

2,017,877 
82 516 

Alaska. . 


Arizona. 

Arkansas. 

California. 

.118,020 

148*745 

142,574 

1,648,049 

Colorado. 

Connecticut. 

Delaware. 

District of Columbia. .. 
Florida. 

.103,925 

.4,990 

.70 

.58,680 

615,570 

1,001,576 

194,479 

307,716 

629,341 

Georgia. 

Guam. 

Hawaiian Isds. 

Idaho. 

Illinois. 

.84,800 

2,243,719 

9,648 

192,407 

205,704 

5,418,670 

Indiana..,. 

Iowa. 

Kansas. 

Kentucky. 

Louisiana. 

.36,350 

.56,025 

.40,400 

.4S,720 

2,710,898 

2,205,690 

1,612,471 

8,820,298 

1,539,479 

Maine. 

Maryland. 

Massachusetts. 

Michigan 

. 33,040 

. 12,210 

.8,315 

714,494 

1.275.4:14 

8,048,846 

2,584,533 

2,025,615 

Minnesota. 

.83,365 

Mississippi. 

Missouri. 

Montana. 

Nebraska. 

Nevada. 

.46,810 

.69,415 

.146,0S0 

.77,510 

.110,700 

1,70S,272 
8,363,153 
803,575 
1,068,484 
42,335 


New Hampshire.. 

Area in 
Square Miles 

Population, 
est. 1906 

482,624 

2,144,143 

212,825 

8,226,990 

2,059,826 

New Jersey .. 

..7,815 

New Mexico.. 

New York. . 

North Carolina. 

.. .. 122,580 

.49,170 

.52,250 

North Dakota. 

Ohio. 

Oklahoma. 

Oregon . 

Pennsylvania. 

.70,795 

.39,030 

.96,080 

463,784 
4,448,677 
590,247 
474,738 
6 928 515 

Philippine Isds. . 

Porto Rico. 

Rhode Island.... 

South Carolina .. 

South Dakota. 

.3,550 

.1,250 

.80,570 

7,912,248 

1,037,028 

490,387 

1,453.818 

465,908 

Tennessee. 


2,172,166 
3,536,618 
8 ,NX) 
816,831 
850,573 

Texas. 

Tutuila. 

Utah. 

Vermont.. 

...265,780 

.55 

.. .84,970 

Virginia. 

Washington. 

West Virginia. 

Wisconsin. 

. ...42,450 

.69,180 

.24,780 

1,973,100 

614,625 

1,076.406 

2,260,930 

103,673 

Wyoming. 


United Slates, total. 

United States (without Alaska 
Philippine Isds., etc.). 

..8,624,122 

84,216,433 

S3,941,510 


TWENTY-FIVE LARGEST CITIES IN THE WORLD 


1. London, England, est.’07. 

Greater London, est. ’07. 

2. New York, U.S., est. ’06. 

8 . Paris, France, ’06. 

4. Chicago. U.S., est. ’06 . 

6 . Berlin, Germany, ’05. 

6 . Vienna, Austria-Hungary, '07. 

7. Toklo, Japan, *08. 

8 . Philadelphia, U.S., est. ’06. 

0. St. Petersburg, Russia, ’05. 

10. Moscow, Russia, ’07. 

11. Constantinople, Turkey (recent) . 

12. Calcutta, India, ’01. 


Popula- 


tion 


4.758.218 

18. 

7,217,941 

14. 

4,113,043 

15. 

2,768,893 

16. 

2,049,185 

17. 

2,040.148 

18. 


19. 

1,818,655 

20 . 

1,441,735 

21 . 

1,429,000 

22 . 


23. 

1,106,000 

24. 

1,026,987 

25. 


Popula¬ 

tion 

Buenos Aires, Argentina, est. ’05.1,025,653 


Osaka, Japan, ’08.995,945 

Canton, China, est. ’06.900,000 

Glasgow, Scotland, est. ’07.847,584 

Tientsin, China, est.750,000-900,000 

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, ’06.811,265 

Hamburg. Germany, ’05 . 802,798 

Bombay, India, est. ’01.776,006 

Warsaw, Russia, ’01.756,426 

Liverpool, England, est. ’07.746,144 

Budapest, Austria-Hungary, ’00 .782,822 

Peking, China, est.*..700,000 

St. Louis, U.S., est. ’06.649,820 




































































































IV 


APPENDIX 


ESTIMATED POPULATION OF TWENTY-EIGHT LARGEST CITIES IN THE 

UNITED STATES IN 1906 


Population 


1. New York, N.Y.4,113,043 

2. Chicago, III .2,049,185 

3. Philadelphia, Pa.1,441,735 

4. St. Louis, Mo.649,320 

5. Boston, Mass.602,278 

6 . Baltimore, Md..'.553,669 

7. Cleveland, Ohio.460,327 

8 . San Francisco, Cal.450,000 

9. Buffalo, N.Y.381,819 

10. Pittsburg, Pa.375,082 

11. Detroit, Mich.353,535 

12. Cincinnati, Ohio.345,230 

13. Milwaukee, Wis.317,903 

14. New Orleans, La.314,146 


Population 


15. Washington, D.C...307,716 

16. Newark, N.J.289,634 

17. Minneapolis, Minn..273,825 

18. Los Angeles, Cal.250,000 

19. Jersey City, N.J.,....237,952 

20. Louisville, Ky.226,129 

21. Indianapolis, Ind.219,154 

22. St. Paul, Minn.203,815 

23. Providence, E.I.203,243 

24. Oakland, Cal.200,000 

25. Rochester, N.Y.185,703 

26. Kansas City, Mo.182,376 

27. Toledo, Ohio.159,980 

2S. Denver, Colo.151,920 


GROWTH OF THE FIFTEEN LARGEST CITIES OF THE COUNTRY 


City 1800 

1. New York, N.Y.60,4S9 (1) 

2. Chicago, Ill. 

3. Philadelphia, Pa.41,220 (2) 

4. St. Louis, Mo.10,049 (1820) 

5. Boston, Mass.24,937 (4) 

6. Baltimore, Md.26,514(3) 

7. Cleveland, Ohio.606 (1820) 

8. San Francisco, Cal. 

9. Buffalo, N.Y.2,095 (1820) 

10. Pittsburg, Pa.1,565 

11. Detroit, Mich.1,422 (1820) 

12. Cincinnati, Ohio.2,540 (1S10) 

13. Milwaukee, Wis. 

14. New Orleans, La.17,242 (1810) 

15. Washington, D.C.3,210 


1S30 

1S90 

1906 

197,112 (1) 

1.515,301 (1) 

4,113,043 

4,470 (1840) 

1,099,850 (2) 

2,049,185 

SO,462 (3) 

1,046,964 (3) 

1,441,735 

14,125 

451,770 (4) 

649,320 

61,392 (4) 

44S,477 (5) 

602,278 

SO, 620 (2) 

443,439 (6) 

553,669 

1,076 

261,353 (9) 

460,327 

> 

298,997 (7) 

450,000 

8,668 

255,664 (10) 

381,819 

12.568 

238,617 (12) 

375,082 

2,222 

205,876 (14) 

353,535 

24,831 (7) 

296,908 (8) 

345,230 

1,172 (1840) 

204,46S (15) 

317,903 

29,737 (6) 

242,039 (11) 

314,146 

18,826 

230,392 (13) 

307,716 


CITIES OF THE UNITED STATES WITH 25,000 OR MORE INHABITANTS IN 1906; AND 
A FEW OTHERS, MOSTLY MENTIONED IN THE BOOK 

(Cuban cities listed here) 


Population Est. 

Akron, Ohio.'.. 50,738 

Albany, N.Y.170,609 

Albuquerque, N.M. 6,238 

Population Est. 

Billings, Mont. 3,221 

Binghamton, N.Y. 43,096 

Birmingham. Ala. 45 804 

Allegheny* Pa.145*240 

Allentown, Pa.. 41,595 

Altoona, Pa. 47,910 

Annapolis, Md. . 9,077 

Ann Arbor, Mich.14,645 

Ashland, Wis.14,80S 

Asheville, N.C. 18,414 

Bismarck. N.D. 3 921 

Boise, Idaho. 4’l74 

Boston, Mass. 002’278 

Bradford, Pa. io’.577 

Bridgeport, Conn. 84 274 

Brockton. Mass. 4Q .840 

Astoria, Ore. 9,701 

Atchison, Kan. 18,S71 

Brunswick, Ga.. 9 453 

Buffalo, N.Y.381,’819 

Burlineron. Vt. 9.1 070 

Atlanta, Ga.109,984 

Butte. Mont. 43 09.4 

Atlantic Citv, N.J. 39*544 

Auburn, N.Y.32,963 

Cambridge. Mass. 08 544 

Auburn, Me. 13,971 

Augusta, Ga.43,125 

Camden, N.J. 84 840 

Canton, Ohio. ss’440 

Carson Citv. Nev. o’mo 

Augusta, Me. 12,379 

Austin, Tex.25,290 

Baltimore, Md.;. 553,669 

Cedar Rapids, Iowa. 90 sso 

Charleston. S.C. 50 317' 

Bangor, Me.23,500 

Charleston, W. Ya. 13 715 

Charlotte. N.C. oo’nno 

Bar Harbor, Me., '90. 2^000 

Bath, Me.11,527 

Chattanooga, Tenn. 34 907 

Chelsea, Mass. 3 t'q3o 

Baton Rouge, La. 11,743 

Bay City, Mich.40,587 

Chester. Pa. 3 c 000 

Bavonne, N.J. 44 170 

Cheyenne Wyo. 13 ’, 570 

( hlCcUTO. Ill. 0 n*o le* 

Berkeley, Cal.21,900 

Biddeford, Me. 17 165 

Cincinnati, Ohio... 345 200 

Cleveland, Ohio.... 40o’s97 







































































































AREA , POPUL 


Population Est. 


Colorado Springs, Colo.29,338 

Columbia, S.C.24,564 

Columbus, Ga.17,800 

Columbus, Ohio.145,414 

Concord, N.II.21,210 

Council Bluffs, Iowa. 25,117 

Covington, Ky.45,436 

Cripple Creek, Colo.,.10,147 

Dallas, Tex.52,793 

Danville, Va.19,972 

Davenport, Iowa.40,706 

Dayton, Ohio.100,799 

Denver, Colo.151,920 

Des Moines, Iowa.78,323 

Detroit, Mich.353,535 

Dover, Del.8,329 

Dover, N.II....13,459 

Dubuque, Iowa...43,070 

Duluth, Minn.67,337 

Durham, N.C.26,233 

Easton, Pa.2S,317 

East St, Louis, Ill.40,958 

Elizabeth, N.J.62,185 

Elmira, N.Y.35,7:34 

El Paso, Tex.19,248 

Erie, Pa.59,993 

Evansville, Ind. 63,957 

Fall River, Mass.105,942 

Findlay, Ohio.17,613 

Fitchburg, Mass.33,319 

Fort Wayne, Ind.50,947 

Fort Worth, Tex.27,096 

Frankfort, Ky.10,447 

Galveston, Tex.34,355 

Gloucester, Mass.25,989 

Grand Rapids, Mich.99,794 

Greeley, Colo. 3,023 

Greenville, S.C...13,810 

Guthrie, Ok.13,BOS 

Harrisburg, Pa.55,735 

Hartford, Conn.95,822 

Havana, Cuba.202,395 

Haverhill, Mass.37,961 

Helena, Mont. 16,770 

Hilo, Hawaiian Islands.19,785 

Hoboken, N.J.66,689 

Holyoke, Maes.CO,778 

Honolulu, Hawaiian Islands.39,306 

Hot Springs, Ark.11,157 

Houston, Tex.58,132 

Indianapolis, Ind.219,154 

Ishpeming, Mich.10,807 

Ithaca, N.Y.14,768 

Jackson, Mich.25,360 

Jackson, Miss.7,816 


Jacksonville, Fla.36,675 

Jamestown, N.Y.26,628 

Jefferson City, Mo.11,416 

Jersey City, N.J.287,952 

Johnstown, Pa.43,250 


Joliet, Ill.62,185 

Joplin, Mo.85,671 

Juneau, Alaska.1,864 

Kansas City, Kan.77,912 

Kansas City, Mo.182,376 


Key West, Fla., 
Knoxville, Tenn 
La Crosse, Wis.. 
Lancaster, Pa... 
Lansing, Mich.., 


21,174 

86,051 

29,115 

47,129 

22,172 


1 TION, ETC. 


Y 



Population Est. 

Laramie, Wyo. 



Lawrence, Si ass_ 



Leadville, Colo.... 



Lewiston. Me... 




Lincoln. Neb. 



Little Rock. Ark... 


.39,959 

Lockport, N.Y.. 



Los Angeles, Cal. . 



Louisville, Ky. 



Lowell, Mass... 



Lynchburg, \ a... 



Lynn, Mass. 



Macon, Ga. 



Madison, Wis.... 



Malden, Mass... 



Manchester, N.II. 



Manila, Philippines.. 


219,928 

Marquette, Mich.... 



Matanzas, Cuba. 



McKeesport, Pa. 



Memphis, Tenn... 



Meriden, Conn. 



Milwaukee, Wis... 



Minneapolis, Minn. 



Mobile, Ala. 



Montgomery, Ala... 



Montpelier, Vt. 



Nashua, N.H. 



Nashville, Tenn... 



Natchez, Miss.... 



Newark, N.J. 



New Bedford, Mass. 



New Britain, Conn. 


.33,722 

Newcastle, Pa. 


.36,849 

New Haven, Conn. 


.121,227 

New Orleans, La 



Newport, Ky. 


.30,329 

Newport, R.I. 



Newport News, Va. 



Newton, Mass. 


37,475 

New York, N.Y. 


.4,113,043 

Niagara Falls, N.Y. 


.27,827 

Nome City, Alaska. 


. .. 12.4S6 

Norfolk, Va. 



Norristown, Pa. 


. 23,747 

Oakland, Cal. 


.200,000 

Ogden, Utah. 


.17,165 

Oil City, Pa. 


. .14,662 

Oklahoma, Ok. 


.20,990 

Olean, N.Y. 


.10,202 

Olympia, Wash. 


. 4,082 

Omaha, Neb. 


. 124,167 

Oshkosh, Wis. 


. .81,038 

Oswego, N.Y. 


. 22,419 

Passaic N.J 



Paterson, N.J 



Pawtucket, R.I. 


..44,211 

Pensacola, Fla. 


. .22,256 

Peoria, 111 . 


. .66,365 

Philadelphia, Pa. 


. .1,441,735 

Ptiu*ni v Ariz. 


.. .5.544 

Pierre, 8.D. 


. .2,806 




Pittsfield, Mass. 


.25,648 

Plymouth, Mass. 


....11,424 

Ponce, Porto Rico, '99. .. 


. .27,952 

Portland, Me. 


.55,167 

Portland, Ore. 


.109,884 

Portsmouth, N.II. 


.11,123 














































































































































VI 


APPENDIX 


Population Est. 


Poughkeepsie, N.Y.25,369 

Providence, R.I.203,243 

Provincetown, Mass.4,555 

Pueblo, Colo.30,824 

Quincy, Ill.39,108 


Population Est. 


Sitka, Alaska.1,396 

Somerville, Mass.70,798 

South Bend, Ind.44,609 

South Omaha, Neb.36,765 

Spokane, Wash.47,006 


Quincy, Mass.28,911 

Racine, Wis..32,988 

Raleigh, N.C.14,425 

Reading, Pa.91,141 

Richmond, Va.87,246 


Springfield, Ill.38,933 

Springfield, Mass.75,836 

Springfield, Ohio.42,069 

Stockton, Cal.19,970 

Superior, Wis.37,643 


Roanoke, Ya.24,699 

Rochester, N.Y.185,703 

Rockford, Ill.36,091 

Rome, Ga.7,291 

Rutland, Vt.11,499 


Syracuse, N.Y.118,880 

Tacoma, Wash. 55,392 

Tallahassee, Fla.2,981 

Tampa, Fla.*_* '24,220 

Taunton, Mass.30,953 


Sacramento, Cal.31,602 

Saginaw, Mich.4S,742 

St. Augustine, Fla.4,272 

St. Joseph, Mo.118,004 

St. Louis, Mo.614,320 

St. Paul, Minn.203,815 

Salem, Mass.37,961 

Salem, Ore.4,258 

Salt Lake City, Utah.61,202 

San Antonio, Tex.62,711 

San Diego, Cal.19,620 

San Francisco, Cal.450,000 

San Jose, Cal.24,252 

San Juan, Porto Rico.32,048 

Santa Fe, N.M.5,603 

Santiago, Cuba.45,478 

Sault Ste. Marie, Mich.11,S94 

Savannah, Ga.68,596 

Schenectady, N.Y.61,919 

Scranton, Pa.118,692 

Seattle, Wash. 104,169 

Shreveport, La.17,831 

Sioux City, Iowa.42,920 

Sioux Falls, S.D.12,681 


Terre Haute, Ind.52,805 

Toledo, Ohio. i59,980 

Topeka, Kan.41,886 

Trenton, N.J.86,355 

Troy, N.Y.76,513 

Tucson, Ariz.7,531 

Utica, N.Y.165^099 

Vicksburg, Miss.14,834 

Virginia City, Nev. 2*695 

Waltham, Mass.23,481 

Washington, D.C.307,716 

Waterbury, Conn. .61,903 

Watertown, N.Y..25*992 

Wheeling, W. Va. ]4L494 

Wichita, Kan. .35,541 

Wilkes Barre, Pa.60,121 

Williamsport, Pa. **’**’’' .29*755 

Wilmington, Del........’ .85,140 

Winona, Minn. .20,458 

Woonsocket, It. I. .32^994 

Worcester, Mass.130,078 

Yonkers, N.Y. 64*110 

York, Pa.!! '.39*168 

Youngstown, Ohio. 52,710 


FOREIGN CITIES MENTIONED IN THE TEXT 


Population 

Aachen, Germany, ’05.144,095 

Abbeokuta, Niger Terr.150,000 

Aberdeen, Scotland, ’07.174,549 

Acapulco, Mexico, ’00.4,932 

Adelaide, Australia, ’06 .174,438 

Aden, Aden, ’01.41,222 

Adiz Abeba, Abyssinia.30,000-35,000 

Alexandria, Egypt, ’97 .319,766 

Algiers, Algeria, ’06.138,240 

Amsterdam, Netherlands, ’06.564,1S6 

Antwerp, Belgium, ’06 . .304,032 

Archangel, Russia, ’97.17,802 

Arequipa, Peru, ’07.35,000—40,000 

Asuncion, Paraguay, ’05.60,259 

Athens, Greece, ’06.170,000 

Auckland, New Zealand, ’06.25,746 

Bagdad, Turkey in Asia.145,000 

Bahia, Brazil, ’00.230,000 

Baku, Russia, ’00.179,133 

Ballarat, Australia, ’06.48,565 

Bangkok, Siam.400,000-600,000 

Barcelona, Spain, ’00.533,000 

Barmen, Germany, ’05.156,080 

Basle, Switzerland, ’07.131,687 

Batavia, Java, ’01.115,887 


Population 


Belfast, Ireland, ’01.349,ISO 

Belgrade, Servia, ’05..*!.... .77 816 

Benares, India, ’01.!...!.!!!209*331 

Bendigo, Australia, ’06..44,140 

Berbera, Br. Somaliland.80*000 

Bergen, Norway, ’00. 72,251 

Berlin, Germany, ’05.’.'.'.‘ ’.'.’.'.'.2’040*148 

Berne, Switzerland, ’07.73,185 

Bethany, Holy Land. .1*105 

Bethlehem, Holy Land..8*000 

Bilbao, Spain, ’00.S3,306 

Birmingham, England, ’07. 553,155 

Bloemfontein, South Africa, ’04..33*S83 

Bogota, Colombia, ’05. ’ ioo!oOO 

Bologna, Italy.152*009 

Bombay, India, ’01...776,006 

Bordeaux, France ’06.251.917 

Bradford, England, ’07.....'’.' ’.'.’.' ’ ’ ’.' ! 290*323 

Bremen, Germany, 05.214,861 

Breslau, Germany, 05. .470^904 

Brindisi, Italy, ’01.23,005 

Brisbane, Australia, ’06.132 468 

Bristol, England, ’07. !367*979 

Brussels, Belgium, ’06. .'. 623^041 

Bucharest, Roumania, ’07..276,178 





































































































































AREA, POPULATION , ETC , 


Vll 


Population 

Budapest, Austria-Hungary, ’00 . 782,822 

Buenos Aires, Argentina, ’05.'l,025,658 

Cadiz, Spain, ’00.69,382 

Cairo, Egypt, ’97.570,062 

Calcutta, India, ’01.1,026,987 

Calgary, Canada, ’06. 11 967 

Callao, Peru, ’96. ”!!!!.! ]4s'l 18 

Cambridge, England, ’01 .................. ,38’379 

Canton, China, ’06.900,000 

Cape Town, Cape Colony, ’04.77,G63 

Caracas, Venezuela, ’94. 72 429 

Cardiff, Wales, ’07..i87,’620 

Cartagena, Colombia, ’05.14,000 

Cartagena, Spain, ’00.’ ’ ’ .99,871 

Catania, Italy, ’06. ....... i49,295 

Cayenne, French Guiana, ’01 .12,612 

Cettinje, Montenegro..." ’ .4,500 

Charlottetown, Canada, ’01 .J2]0S0 

Chemnitz, Germany, ’05. 244'927 

Chengtu, China..’800,000 

'Christchurch, New Zealand, ’06.49,928 

Christiania, Norway, ’00."227,626 

Ciudad Bolivar, Venezuela, ’00.' ’ ,ll ’686 

Cologne, Germany, ’05.. ’ '428,722 

Colon, Panama, ’07. .14*000 

Constantinople, Turkey, recent.1,106,000 

Copenhagen, Denmark, ’06.426,540 

Cordoba, Argentina, ’06. 53,000 

Cordoba, Spain, ’00 .58,275 

Cork, Ireland, ’01. . .76,122 

Cuzco, Peru. ’96.10,000-15,000 

Damascus, Turkey in Asia, ’06 . 250,000 

Danzig, Germany, ’05.159,648 

Dawson, Canada, ’01.9,142 

Delhi, India, ’01. !‘208’575 

Dover, England, ’01.41,794 

Dresden, Germany, ’05.516,996 

Dublin, Ireland, ’01 .. .290,638 

Dundee, Scotland, ’07.!"l65,748 

Dunedin, New Zealand.36,070 

Durban, Natal, ’06.69,896 

Edinburgh, Scotland, ’07.845,479 

Elberfeld, Germany, ’05.162,853 

Essen, Germany, ’05.231,860 

Faehan, China,' ’05.450,000 

Fez, Morocco,’06.140,000 

Fiume, Austria-Hungary, ’00 .88,955 

Florence, Italy, ’06.205,589 

Frankfort, A.M., Germany, ’05.884,978 

Fredericton, Canada, ’01.7,117 

Freetown. Sierra Leone, ’06.37,009 

Fuchau, China, ’06.624,000 

Geneva, Switzerland, ’07.116,387 

Genoa, Italy, ’01.234,710 

Georgetown, British Guiana, ’91.53,176 

Ghent, Belgium, ’06.163,079 

Gibraltar, Spanish Pen., ’01.26,830 

Glasgow, Scotland, ’07.847,5S4 

Gothenburg, Sweden, ’06.156,927 

Granada, Spain, ’01.75,900 

Grimsby, England, ’07.70,574 

Guatemala, Guatemala, ’04.96,560 

Guayaquil, Ecuador, ’06.80,000 

Hague, The, Netherlands, ’06.248,995 

Halifax, Canada, ’01.40,832 

Halle, Germany, ’05.169,916 

Hamburg, Germany, ’05.802,793 

Hamilton, Bermuda, ’01.2,246 

Hamilton, Canada, ’01.52,634 

Haminerfest, Norway, ’00. 2,29S 


Population 


Hangchau. China, ’06.850,000 

Hankau, China, ’06.530,000 

Hanover, Germany, ’05.250,024 

Havre, France, ’0(5.!!! 132,4440 

Hebron, Holy Land.15,000 

Helsingfors, Russia, ’03.106,067 

Hobart, Tasmania, ’01. ’ [ .24^655 

Hongkong, China, ’06.’.’ ’'' *.’819,803 

Hue, French Ind. China.50,(WH) 

Hull, England, ’07. !.!!!.’! .‘266,762 

Hyderabad, India, ’01. 44S,466 

Iquique, Chile, ’06." .43,500 

Irkutsk, Siberia. ’97.51,473 

Jerusalem, Holy Land, ’06.70*000 

Johannesburg, Transvaal, ’04. !..... ,i5 s[850 

Joppa, Holy Land, ’06.45,000 

Kabul, Afghanistan..’60,000 

Khartum, Egyptian Sudan.14,823 

Khelat, Baluchistan..12,000 

Kiev, Russia, ’02. .819,000 

Kimberley, Cape Colony, ’04.77,668 

Kingston, Canada, ’01.17,961 

Kingston, Jamaica, ’07."46,542 

Kioto, Japan, ’03.880 568 

Konigsberg, Germany, ’05.228,770 

Krefeld, Germany, ’05.110,344 

Kumassi, Ashanti, ’05.5,940 

La Guaira, Venezuela, ’05. i‘2,000 

La Paz, Bolivia, ’06.. . .67,235 

La Plata, Argentina, ’06..80,000 

Lassa, Tibet, ’04..'.!.[l(),000 

Leeds, England, ’07.470,268 

Leghorn, Italy, ’01.98,321 

Leicester, England, ’07.236,124 

Leipzig, Germany, ’05.508,672 

Leith, Scotland, ’07.88,668 

Libreville, French Congo,’97.8,000 

Liege, Belgium, ’06.172,039 

Lille, France, ’06.205,602 

Lima, Peru,’03.180,000 

Limoges, France, ’06.88,597 

Lisbon, Portugal, ’00 . 856,009 

Liverpool, England, ’07.746,144 

Loanda, Port. W. Africa, ’98.20,106 

Lodz, Russia, ’00.851,570 

London, Canada, ’01.37,981 

London, England, ’07.4,758,218 

London, Greater, ’07.7,217,941 

Lourenpo Marquez, Port. E. Africa, ’06.9,849 

Lucerne, Switzerland, ’07.34,480 

Lucknow, India, ’01.264,049 

Lyon, France, ’06 .472,114 

Madras, India, ’01.509,346 

Madrid, Spain, ’00.589,885 

Magdeburg, Germany, ’05.240,638 

Malaga, Spain, ’00.7.180,109 

Manaos, Brazil, ’00.40,000 

Manchester, England, ’07.643,148 

Mandalay, Burma, ’01.188,816 

Marseille, France, ’06.517,498 

Maskat, Oman, '07 . 25,000 

Mecca, Turkey,’07 . 60,000 

Melbourne, Australia, ’06.526,400 

Messina, Italy, ’01.149,778 

Metz, Germany, ’06.60,896 

Mexico City, Mexico, '00.844,721 

Milan, Italy, ’01.498,241 

Mocha, Turkey in Asia.5,000 

Mombasa, Br. E. Africa, ’07...80.0(H) 

Monrovia, Liberia, ’05.8,iH)0 

Montevideo, Uruguay, ’07.809,390 


















































































































































yin 


APPENDIX 


Population 

Montreal, Canada, ’01 207,730 

Morocco, Morocco... .50,000 

Moscow, Russia, ’07.1,359,254 

Munich, Germany, ’05.538,983 

Nagoya, Japan, ’03.2S8,G39 

Naples, Italy, ’01.563,540 

Nassau, Bahama.10,000 

Nazareth, Holy Land. 11,000 

Newcastle, England, ’07.272,969 

Nice, France, ’06.134,232 

Nijni Novgorod, Russia, ’97.90,053 

. Nottingham, England, ’07.257,489 

Nuremberg, Germany, ’05.294,426 

Odessa, Russia, ’00.449,673 

Oporto, Portugal, '00.167,955 

Osaka, Japan, ’03.995,945 

Ottawa, Canada.59,928 

Oxford, England, ’07.51,900 

Palermo, Italy, ’01.309,694 

Panama, Colombia, ’07.30,000 

Para, Brazil, ’00.*.100,000 

Paramaribo, Dutch Guiana, ’05.34,085 

Paris, France, ’06.2,763,393 

Peking, China, est.;.700,000 

Pernambuco, Brazil, ’00.120,000 

Perth, West Australia, ’07.50,527 

Peterborough, Canada, ’01.11,239 

Pietermaritzburg, Natal, ’04.31,809 

Pirasus, Greece, ’06.70,000 

Pisa, Italy, ’01.61,321 

Port Arthur, Canada, ’01.3,214 

Port Arthur, Russia in Asia.. 

Port au Prince, Haiti, ’06.70,000 

Port Said, Egypt, ’97.42,095 

Portsmouth, England, ’07.208,291 

Posen, Germany, ’05.136,808 

Potsdam, Germany, ’05.61,414 

Prague, Austria-Hungary, ’07.228,645 

Pretoria, Transvaal, ’04 (white Pop. only)... .21,161 
Puebla, Mexico, ’00. 93,521 

Quebec, Canada, ’01.68,840 

Queenstown, Ireland, ’01.7,902 

Quito, Ecuador.SO,000 

Rangoon, Burma.234,S81 

Reims, France, ’06.109,859 

Riga, Russia, ’97.2S2,230 

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, ’06.811,265 

Rome, Italy, ’01.462,743 

Rosario, Argentina, ’06.150,000 

Rotterdam, Netherlands, ’06.390,364 

Roubaix, France, ’06.121,017 

Rouen, France, ’06.118,459 

St. Etienne, France, ’06.146,788 

St. John, Canada, ’01.40,711 

St. John’s, Newfoundland, ’06.29^594 

St. Petersburg, Russia.1,429,000 

Samarkand, Russian Turkestan, ’00.58,194 

San Luis Potosi, Mexico, ’00.61,019 

San Salvador, Salvador, ’01...59,540 

Santiago, Chile, ’05.378,000 

Santo Domingo, Santo Domingo.16,000 


ELEVATION OF SOME 


Feet 

Abyssinian Plateau. 5_7 000 

Aconcagua, Andes, Argentina (highest 

in South America ). 22 860 

Apo, Mindanao, Philippines. to',312 

Ararat, Turkey in Asia.’ 17*325 

Mt. Blanc, Alps, France (highest in Alps) 15,7S1 


Population 


Santos, Brazil, ’00. 35,000 

Silo Paulo, Brazil, ’02.332,000 

Seoul, Korea, ’02.196,646 

Seville, Spain, ’00.148,315 

Sevres, France, ’01.8,216 

Shanghai, China, ’06 .651,000 

Sheffield, England, ’07.455,453 

Siangtan, China, ’06.1,000,000 

Singanfu, China.500,000-1,000,000 

Singapore, Straits Settlement.193,089 

Smyrna, Turkey.201,000 

Sofia, Bulgaria, ’05.82,621 

Southampton, England, ’07.119,745 

Stettin, Germany, ’05.224,119 

Stockholm, Sweden, ’06.332,738 

Strassburg, Germany, ’05.167,678 

Stuttgart, Germany, ’05.249,286 

Suchau, China, ’06.500,000 

Sucre, Bolivia, ’06.23,416 

Suez, Egypt, ’97 .15,273 

Swansea, Wales, ’07.97,324 

Sydney, Australia, ’01.487,900’ 

Tampico, Mexico.16,313 

Tananarivo, Madagascar.65,000 

Tangier, Morocco.30,000 

Tashkend, Russian Turkestan, ’07.155,673 

Teheran, Persia.280,000 

Tiberias, Holy Land. 3,000 

Tientsin, China.750,000-900,000 

Tiffis, Russia, ’00.159,590 

Timbuktu, Sudan.5,000 

Tokio, Japan, ’03. s ..,1,S18,655 

Toronto, Canada, ’01.208,040 

Trebizond, Turkey in Asia, ’07.35,000 

Trieste, Austria-Hungary, ’07 .205,136 

Tripoli, Tripoli, ’07.30,000 

Trondliiem, Norway, ’00 .38,156 

Tunis, Tunis, ’06 .177,500 

Turin, Italy, ’01 .355,656 

Upernivik, Greenland.700 

Valencia, Spain, ’00.213,530 

Valparaiso, Chile, ’07 . 175,000 

Vancouver, Canada, ’01.26,133 

Venice, Italy, ’01.i.51,840 

Vera Cruz, Mexico, ’00.29,164 

Versailles, France, ’06.54,820 

Victoria, Canada, ’01.' ’' 120,816 

Vienna, Austria-Hungary, ’07.1,999,912 

Vladivostok, Siberia, ’00 .38,000 

Warsaw, Russia, ’01.1756,426 

Wellington, New Zealand, ’06.5S,5G3 

West Ham, England, ’07.308,284 

Windsor, Canada, ’00.12,153 

Winnipeg, Canada, ’06. **[*’* ,9o’l53 

Wuchang, China.5-^600,000 

Yarmouth, Canada, ’01.6,430 

Yokoba, Niger Terr., ’05.11'.’.'.'. .50’000 

Yokohama, Japan, ’03.326,035 

Zanzibar, British, ’07. 1.70,000 

Zurich, Switzerland, ’07. .1.1.1. i86’846 


AND MOUNTAIN PEAKS 


Feet 

Bolivian Plateau. 10-13,000 

Brazilian Plateau.111111 2-2,500 

Chimborazo, Andes, Ecuador.>.”” 2o’49S 

Cotopaxi, Andes, Ecuador. 19,613 

Elbruz, Caucasus, Russia.1’ isl200 

Etna, Sicily. 1111111111 lo’s35 








































































































































AREA , POPULATION , i?7’C. 


IX 


Everest, Himalayas, Nepal {highest 

known in world) . 

Fremont Peak, Rocky Mts!, Wyoming.. ’ 

Fujiyama, .Japan. 

Hecla, Iceland. 

Kenia, Africa. ..!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 

Kilimanjaro, Africa (highest known in 

Africa) . 

Kosciusko, Australia (highest in Austra¬ 
lia) . 

Logan, Coast Ranges, Canada {highest 

known in Canada) . 

McKinley, Alaska {highest known in 

North America) . 

Mauna Kea, Hawaiian Islands. 


Feet 


29,002 

13,790 

12,365 

5,110 

18,620 


19,780 


7,336 


19,539 

20,464 

13,805 


Mauna Loa, Hawaiian Islands. 13,675 

Mayon, Luzon Island, Philippines. S,900 

Mexican Plateau. 5-6,000 

Mitchell, Appalachian Mts., North Caro¬ 
lina {highest in Eastern US.) . 6,711 

Mt. Marcy, New York. 5,344 


Feet 

Mt. Massive, Colorado. 14,424 

M t. Tina, Haiti.10,800 

Orizaba, Mexico {highest in Mexico) .... isjsi 4 
Pico del Turquino, Cuba. 8,600 

Pike’s Peak, Rocky Mts,, Colorado. 14,108 

Popocatepetl, Mexico. 17,798 

Rainier, Cascade M ts., Washington..... 14*863 

St. Elias, Alaska. 18,(»25 

San Francisco Mountain, Arizona. 12^794 

Shasta. Cascade Mts., California. 14,3S0 

Tibet Plateau. 10-15,000 

United States, Western Plateau. 5 - 6,000 

Vesuvius, Italy. 4,200 

Washington, White Mts., New Hampshire 
{highest in Northeastern U.S.) . 6,279 

Whitney, Sierra Nevada, California (high¬ 
est in Western U.S.) . 14,502 

Yunque, Porto Rico. 8,609 


SOME OF THE LARGEST RIVERS OF THE WORLD 


Basin 

Length Area 



in Miles Sq. Miles 

Ocean 

North America 




Arkansas . 

..2,170 

185,671 

Atlantic 

Colorado. 

.. . 2,000 

225,(49 

Pacific 

Columbia .... 

,. .1,400 

216,537 

Pacific 

Mackenzie. 

,. . 2,000 

590,000 

A retie 

Missouri. 

. . 8,000 

1)27,155 

Atlantic 

Missouri-Mississippi. 

..4,300 257,000 

Atlantic 

Nelson. 


432,000 

Atlantic 

(>hio. 

. . 975 

201,720 

Atlantic 

Rio Grande. 

..1,800 

. 240,000 

Atlantic 

St. Lawrence. 

.. 2,200 

/ 580,000 

Atlantic 

Yukon. 

.. 2,000 

-. 440,000 

Pacific 

South America 




Amazon. 

..3,300 

500,000 

Atlantic 

Orinoco. 

. .1,850 

366,000 

Atlantic 

Plata. 

..2,580 

1 , 200,000 

Atlantic 

Sflo Francisco. 

. .1,S00 

200,000 

Atlantic 

Europe 




Danube. 

..1,770 

300,000 

Atlantic 

1 >nieper. 

.. 1,200 

242,000 

Atlantic 

Dwina. 

.. 1,000 

140,000 

Atlantic 

Elbe. 

.. 725 

55,000 

Atlantic 

l’o. 


27,000 

Atlantic 

Rhine. 

.. 800 

75,000 

Atlantic 

Rhone . 

.. 500 

88,000 

Atlantic 


Basin 
Length Area 
in Miles Sq. Miles Ocean 

Europe 


Seine. 482 30,300 Atlantic 

Thames. 228 6,100 Atlantic 

Volga.2,400 563,300 Caspian 

Asia 

Amur.2,800 520,000 Pacific 

Brahmaputra.1,800 425,000 Indian 

Ganges.1,500 440,000 Indian 

Hoang-ho ...; .2,700 570,000 Pacific 

Indus.1,800 372,700 Indian 

Irawadi.1,500 158,000 Indian 

Lena.2,800 950,000 Arctic 

Mekong.2,800 2S0,000 Pacific 

Ob. 8,200 1,009,000 Arctic 

Yangtse-kiang. 8,200 548,000 Pacific 

Yenisei.3,000 1,500,000 Arctic 

Africa 

Kongo.2.900 1,200,000 Atlantic 

Niger.2, 6 (K) 568,800 Atlantic 

Nile.8,400 1,278,000 Atlantic 

Zambezi.1,500 600, (UK) Indian 

Australia 

Darling.1,100 - Indian 

Murray.1,000 270,000 Indian 


SOME OF THE LARGE LAKES OF THE WORLD 



Area in 

Elevation 

Greatest 


Square 

in 

Demth in 


Miles 

Feet 

Feet 

Aral Sea. 

.. 26,900 

160 

225 

Baikal. 

.. 12,500 

1,312 

4,550 

Balkasii. 

.. 7,800 

780 

70 

Caspian. 

.. 169,000 

-85i 

2,400 

Chad, variable with 




season . 

.. 10,000 



and often more 

800-900 

12 

Dead Sea . 

870 

-1,810 1 

1,330 

Erie. 

9,990 

573 

210 

Great Bear Lake. 

.. 11,200 

2 (H) 

— 

Great Salt Lake. 

.. 2,860 

4,218 

80-50 

Great Slave Lake.... 

.. 10 ,KH) 

— 

over 650 


1 Below sea level. 


Huron. 

Area in 
Square 
Miles 

Elevation 

in 

Feet 

582 

Greatest 
Depth in 
Feet 

750 

laidoga. 

_ 7,(»io 

60 

730 

Manitoba. 

. .. 1,850 

810 

— 

Michigan. 

_21.729 

582 

870 

Nicaragua. 

.... 8,600 

110 

88 

Nyassa. 

. . ..14,000 

1,500 

600+ 

Ontario. 

.... 7,1(4 

247 

738 

Superior. 


602 

1,008 

Tanganyika. 

.... 12,650 

2,8(H) 

12,875 

2,100 

Titicaca. 

.... 8,800 

700 

Victoria Nyanza.... 

_80,000 

4,000 

590+ 

Winnipeg. 

.... 9,400 

710 

70 


































































































X 


APPENDIX 


DISTRIBUTION OF MANKIND 


Mongolians.540,000,000 

China.3S0,000,000 

Japan and Korea. 55,000,000 

Indo-China. 35,000,000 

Malaysia. 30,000,000 

Other Mongolians. 40,000,000 

Caucasians. 770,000,000 

Europe.355,000,000 

Asia. 280,000,000 

America.,. .115,000,000 

Africa. 15,000,000 

Australasia. 5,000,000 


Ethiopians .. 173,000,000 

Africa and Madagascar.153,000,000 

North and South America. 20,000,000 

American Indians. 22,170,000 

Mexico. 8,765,000 

Brazil. 4,200,000 

Colombia. 3,150,000 

Peru. 2,700,000 

Bolivia, Guatemala, and Venezuela.... 4,225,000 

United States. 250,000 

Canada. 100,000 


RELIGIONS OF MANKIND 


Buddhists and Brahmins.659,000,000 

Christians.477,080,158 

Jews. 7,186,000 


Mohammedans.176,834,372 

Pagans and others.250,000,000 


PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES FROM WHICH THE FOREIGN-BORN POPULATION OF JIIE 

UNITED STATES HAS COME 


Country of Birth Number in 1900 

Germany.2,666,990 

Ireland.1,618,567 

Canada and Newfoundland.1,181,265 

England.842,078 

Sweden.573,040 

Italy.484,207 


Country of Birth Number in 1900 

Russia.424,096 

Poland.383,510 

Norway.336,985 

Scotland.233,977 

Total of foreign-born population.10,356,644 


DISTRIBUTION OF NEGROES, IN THE FIFTEEN STATES WHERE THEY ARE MOST 

NUMEROUS 



States 

Number 
of Negroes 
in 1900 

Percentage of 
Negroes to total 
Population, 1900 

1. 

Georgia. 

...1,034,813... 
.907,630.. . 

.46.69 

2. 

Mississippi_ 

.58.50 

3. 

Alabama. 

.827,307... 

.45.24 

4. 

South Carolina, 

.782,321... 

.58.36 

5. 

Virginia. 

.660,722... 

.35.63 

6. 

Louisiana. 

. ...650,804... 

.47.10 

7. 

North Carolina 

.624,469... 

.32.97 

8. 

Texas. 

....620,722... 

.20.36 



-O'* V 



Number Percentage of 
of Negroes Negroes to total 
in 1900 Population, 1900 

9. Tennessee.4S0,243.23.77 

10. Arkansas.366,S56.27.97 

11. Kentucky.284,706.13.25 

12. Maryland.235,064.19.75 

13. Florida.230,730.43.65 

14. Missouri.161,234.5.18 

15. Pennsylvania.156,845.2.48 

Total number of Negroes in 1900, 8,840,789. 






























































































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